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*Columbia FDI Perspectives*
Perspectives on topical foreign direct investment issues
Editor-in-Chief: Karl P. Sauvant ([log in to unmask])
Managing Editor: Matthew Conte ([log in to unmask])
*The Columbia FDI Perspectives are a forum for public debate. The views
expressed by the authors do not reflect the opinions of CCSI or our
partners and supporters.*
No. 374 January 8, 2024
*Why public policy exceptions have not delivered and how to make them more
effective*
<https://urldefense.proofpoint.com/v2/url?u=https-3A__columbia.us6.list-2Dmanage.com_track_click-3Fu-3Dab15cc1d53-26id-3D2f7c9dad57-26e-3D35fb9ae2e4&d=DwMFaQ&c=009klHSCxuh5AI1vNQzSO0KGjl4nbi2Q0M1QLJX9BeE&r=I9zAJIudsa5yxlT_Id_PF9eN7Z6KIuzTooqox3bxfWw&m=ibwau0VvAYipO0lLtOjdfSgbMH_-Jbr8khlKHJsmHa-3Kel778PMV4MjaIkKUZ9c&s=j7K2aI9b17buxBEaRKosZs2Epn2OLKcAXO8S1t1zrig&e=>
by
Catharine Titi*
The main substantive evolution in recent investment treaty-making is the
increase in public policy exceptions found in these treaties. Exceptions
typically prevent state conduct from being deemed a treaty violation. They
provide, for example, that nothing in the treaty prevents a state from
adopting measures that it considers necessary for the protection of its
essential security interests
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or that nothing in the treaty precludes a state from adopting
non-arbitrary and nondiscriminatory measures necessary for protecting the
environment or public health.
But what exactly do these exceptions mean? Their interpretation is proving
to be one of the biggest conundrums of international investment law—and it
is important to understand why, because it makes the application of
international investment treaties (IIAs) unpredictable.
The interpretation of investment exceptions has left much to be desired
from the beginning. In *CMS v Argentina*
<https://urldefense.proofpoint.com/v2/url?u=https-3A__columbia.us6.list-2Dmanage.com_track_click-3Fu-3Dab15cc1d53-26id-3D0ce4b4f263-26e-3D35fb9ae2e4&d=DwMFaQ&c=009klHSCxuh5AI1vNQzSO0KGjl4nbi2Q0M1QLJX9BeE&r=I9zAJIudsa5yxlT_Id_PF9eN7Z6KIuzTooqox3bxfWw&m=ibwau0VvAYipO0lLtOjdfSgbMH_-Jbr8khlKHJsmHa-3Kel778PMV4MjaIkKUZ9c&s=gku_eHZY3Q2D1WcD9DQqjNFa90l6aVMdYSYHbRXn_yw&e=>
and awards that followed, investment tribunals rendered nugatory the
applicable treaty’s* security* exception. These awards were criticized and
some were annulled. Rare interpretations of similar exceptions in newer
disputes give hope that lessons have been learned and the interpretation of
these exceptions is becoming more foreseeable.
Yet, other exceptions, notably exceptions targeting measures for the
protection of the environment, have given rise to new controversial
interpretations. In *Bear Creek v. Peru*
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and *Eco Oro v. Colombia*
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the tribunals held that, even when an exception applies, it does not remove
the state’s duty to compensate affected investors.
Treaties rarely state expressly whether an exception removes the duty to
compensate. The *CMS *annulment committee
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addressed the issue in 2007 (para. 129): “if [the exception] applies, the
substantive obligations under the Treaty do not apply.” If the substantive
obligations do not apply, there is no need to compensate. Otherwise, why
introduce the exception? An explanation given by the *Eco Oro *tribunal
that the exception’s only purpose is to make the state’s environmental
measures lawful is unsatisfactory—it implies that, in the absence of an
exception, a state’s public welfare measures are “unlawful.” This
interpretation reveals a misunderstanding about how exceptions function and
places important limits on their usefulness.
But it raises another problem too: how does one interpret provisions that
seem to excuse all but the most egregious state conduct? Exceptions are
sometimes so broad that they appear to defeat the very purpose of
investment protection. Consider a provision—not technically an
exception—through which the parties affirm (CETA
<https://urldefense.proofpoint.com/v2/url?u=https-3A__columbia.us6.list-2Dmanage.com_track_click-3Fu-3Dab15cc1d53-26id-3Dda25481515-26e-3D35fb9ae2e4&d=DwMFaQ&c=009klHSCxuh5AI1vNQzSO0KGjl4nbi2Q0M1QLJX9BeE&r=I9zAJIudsa5yxlT_Id_PF9eN7Z6KIuzTooqox3bxfWw&m=ibwau0VvAYipO0lLtOjdfSgbMH_-Jbr8khlKHJsmHa-3Kel778PMV4MjaIkKUZ9c&s=WFY9y8cGu97niHI5UzcLAlrn6WQ6sVBmUb0VHOVma64&e=>art.
8.9(1)) “their right to regulate … to achieve legitimate policy objectives,
such as the protection of public health, safety, the environment or public
morals, social or consumer protection or the promotion and protection of
cultural diversity.” Under this provision, what kinds of state measures are
actually left that could, potentially, give rise to a breach?
It is time to ask whether we have gone too far in trying to safeguard
policy space because this seems to be affecting tribunals’ willingness to
give effect to some treaty exceptions. We know that it is impossible to
draft a perfect treaty. Still, states must take the long view and consider
how to make their treaties (and their exceptions) effective. Here are some
thoughts on how to achieve this:
- Throwing in as many exceptions as possible is not the solution. If
tribunals regard exceptions as too far-reaching, they may find that they do
not apply or that, if they do, compensation is still due. In other words,
they may behave as if exceptions do not exist.
- It is time to specify in a treaty itself whether, if an exception
applies, there is a duty to compensate. This only happens with respect to
indirect expropriation and the police-powers doctrine. It led the *Bear
Creek* tribunal to reason that, since compensation was expressly
excluded only in relation to indirect expropriation, compensation must then
be due in all other cases.
- It may be useful to draw attention to the need to apply treaty
provisions reasonably, in good faith, equitably, etc. Tribunals have this
obligation anyway, on the basis of general international law, including the
Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties
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(VCLT).
- The current all-or-nothing approach should be abandoned. Treaty
interferences of different gravity should be accounted for and require
different standards of compensation.
- Overly narrow exceptions, such as exceptions for tobacco control
measures or feed-in tariffs, should best be avoided. They fail to predict
future situations and can limit the effectiveness of other exceptions.
- Adjudicator selection matters. Adjudicators should have excellent
knowledge of public international law and be able to apply treaties in
accordance with the VCLT.
As the number of exceptions increases, IIAs become more complex and
difficult to interpret—too long, sometimes repetitive and contradictory. It
is crucial that key exceptions, such as security, environment and public
health exceptions, are present in the treaty text. But it is not advisable
to introduce as many exceptions as possible. Drafting well-balanced
treaties and tackling the issue of compensation may be as important to
enhance the predictability of their interpretation.
------------------------------
* Catharine Titi ([log in to unmask]) is tenured Research Associate
Professor at the French National Centre for Scientific Research (CNRS) and
the CERSA research center of the University Paris-Panthéon-Assas. The
author wishes to thank Michael Reisman, Francis Ssekandi and Katia
Yannaca-Small for their helpful peer reviews.
*The material in this Perspective may be reprinted if accompanied by the
following acknowledgment: “Catharine Titi, ‘**Why public policy exceptions
have not delivered and how to make them more effective,**’ Columbia FDI
Perspectives, No. 374, January 8, 2024. Reprinted with permission from the
Columbia Center on Sustainable **Investment (*http://ccsi.columbia.edu
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A copy should kindly be sent to the Columbia Center on Sustainable
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<https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=3818974>", "Facilitating
Sustainable FDI in a WTO Investment Facilitation Framework: Four Concrete
Proposals <https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=3496967>", "An
Inventory of Concrete Measures to Facilitate the Flow of Sustainable FDI:
What? Why? How?
<https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=3739179>", are available
at https://ssrn.com/author=2461782 .
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