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Channel One
 
 
Whittle's Channel One:
 
Effects on Impulsive Preadolescents' Desire for Advertised Products
 
 
By
Teresa A. Tozzo-Lyles, M.A.,1 and Kim Walsh-Childers, Ph.D.2
University of Florida
Dept. of Surgery, Division of Vascular Surgery, PO Box 100286,
         (<a href="/cgi-bin/wa?LOGON=A3%3Dind9602A%26L%3DAEJMC%26E%3D0%26P%3D5562118%26B%3D--%26T%3Dtext%252Fplain" >[log in to unmask]</a>), Gainesville, Florida 32610, (904)
376-1611,
 
        X5095,1
College of Journalism and Communications, 3019 Weimer Hall,
         (<a href="/cgi-bin/wa?LOGON=A3%3Dind9602A%26L%3DAEJMC%26E%3D0%26P%3D5562118%26B%3D--%26T%3Dtext%252Fplain" >[log in to unmask]</a>), Gainesville, Flordia 32611, (904) 392-6557,2
 
 
 
 
RUNNING HEAD:  Channel One
 
___________________
 
1This paper is based upon research conducted for a Master's Thesis.
 
 
Channel One
 
 
 
 
 
Abstract
 
 
 
Whittle's Channel One:
 
Effects on Impulsive Preadolescents' Desire for Advertised Products
 
 
        This field experiment tested effects of Channel One commercials on
 
   impulsive preadolescent students' purchasing preferences, such as product
 
         liking and likelihood of buying regularly advertised products.
        The most significant findings were that more impulsive students were
 
     slightly (10%) more likely to want to buy products advertised on Channel
One
 than were less impulsive students.  Females, regardless of impulsivity,
 
        were more likely to predict they would spend more on products advertised
and
 exhibited more impulsive-type purchasing, compared to their male peers.
 
 
 
 
Whittle's Channel One:
 
Desire for Impulsive Preadolescents to Buy Products
 
        Beginning in the 1960s and especially since the 1970s, television has been
 
         a prevalent and influential source for socialization of children's
buying
 
         patterns and preferences.  Early studies of this phenomonon focused on
 
      parental interaction, parental education, and family social economic
status
 
         (SES) as predictors of how children buy and of media effects on their
buying
 behaviors (Ward, Levinson, & Wackman, 1972; Ward, Wackman, & Wartella,
 
       1977; Wimen, 1983).
        In recent years, researchers have identified other factors that mediate the
 effects of the media on desire to buy.  Some of these individual
 
 differences include the child's age, degree of peer influence and
 
 interaction, and to some extent whether the child exhibits any type of
 
      risk-taking behavior (Levine, 1987; Levine & McAnarney, 1988; Valenti &
 
       Ferguson, 1991).  Most of this research has shown that measuring and
 
    identifying differences can be important in an everyday context.
        The daily cablecast in schools of Channel One, a product of Whittle
 
    Communications that includes 12-minutes of total programming with two
 
     minutes of commercials daily, provides a unique opportunity to view the
 
       effects that the program has on preadolescents' desire for advertised
 
     products, especially on those students who are more impulsive than others.
 
CHANNEL ONE
        From the onset of Whittle Communication's Channel One, controversy has
 
       focused mainly on the two minutes of commercial advertisements during
each
 
         telecast.
        Channel One, which began in March 1989 in five pilot high schools, is the
 
         brainchild of Chris Whittle and currently is seen in approximately
12,000
 
         schools nationwide by eight million middle- and high-school students
 
    (Donaton, 1992; Konrad, 1992; Mueller & Wulfemeyer, 1993).
        Schools using the program receive approximately $50,000 worth of free video
 equipment (television sets, satellite dish).  School officials are required
 to sign a contract stating that they will show the entire program,
 
   including the commercials intact, to at least 90 percent of the students
 
        daily at a specified time.  During this contract period, the school
cannot
 
         show any other news program to its students.  All equipment must be
returned
 if the school decides that it no longer wishes to participate (Greenberg &
 
         Brand, 1993).
Why the Controversy?
        Parents, teachers and researchers have questioned whether the benefits of
 
         receiving the program outweigh the potentially negative consequences of
 
       exposing students to the two minutes of commercials.  Supporters of
Channel
 
         One argue that their schools receive much needed video equipment.
These
 
        schools can use the equipment for other instructional purposes.  The
show
 
         broadcasts current news events into the classrooms in a format (i.e.,
using
 
         young moderators) and stories that appeal to the teenage audience.
 
   Supporters say the newscast presents "serious news stories" and assists
 
       teachers in presenting current events to students via the "power tool" of
 
         live television (Rukeyser, 1989-1990).
        Opponents of the program, however, contend that the commercials are
 
    unnecessary distractions that add nothing to the learning process and
 
     compare the commercials on Channel One to placing ads in school textbooks
 
         (Rudinow, 1989-90).  Parents, teachers, and others opposing the program
 
       state that children in Channel One schools are essentially forced to
watch
 
         the same ads they could choose to ignore at home (Martin, 1992).
Statement of Purpose
        With more than 1,068 school districts currently hooked up to satellite
 
       dishes, television news in schools seems inevitable, but some
organizations
 
         strongly recommend commercial-free news shows such as "CNN Newsroom"
and
 
        "Assignment Discover," and not Channel One (Graves, 1990).
        Channel One's visual appearance -- fast-paced, stylish and full of flashy
 
         graphics -- frequently has been compared to that of MTV; Columbia
Journalism
 Review called "the video-game approach to news" (Birmingham, 1990).  Many
 
         aspects of the news programming seem to prepare the audience for the
 
    commercial material that follows.  The background music in the news segments
 begins to change about 30 seconds before the advertisements begin, serving
 
         as a lead-in to the commercial by matching the ad's beat.  Typically
the
 
        pace of dialogue in the news segments and the ads speed up to an average
140
 words per minute or approximately two times the normal rate of speech (Mu
 
         rray, 1991).  The ads also differ from other TV commercials, in that
prime
 
         time commercials are usually shorter and geared to a more general
audience.
        Advertising sponsors, such as Nike, PepsiCo, Burger King and others, pay
 
         about $157,000 for each 30-second spot on Channel One.  During the 1991
 
       school year alone, revenues from advertisements on Channel One totalled
 
       approximately $100 million (Donaton, 1992; Kozol, 1993).  Wulfemeyer and
 
        Mueller (1992) evaluated five weeks of Channel One content during the
Spring
 of 1989.  They found that about 86 percent of the commercials evaluated
 
        during this time were for products (jeans, food, etc.), with about 15
 
     percent of the commercials being some form of public service announcement.
        Whittle supplies Channel One sponsors with research that indicates that 58%
 of students in Whittle schools watch the program, but a National Education
 
         Association research project showed that only 40% of students exposed
to
 
        Channel One actually watch the program (Konrad, 1992; Kleinfield, 1991;
 
       Rudinow, 1989-90; Supovitz, 1991).
        In one study, Fitzgerald (1992) found that fewer than one-fourth of the
 
        students surveyed said they paid attention "the whole time."  Carlin et
al.
 
         (1992) found that students and teachers in junior high and senior high
 
      schools in Ohio reported attending to Channel One at least 65% of the
time,
 
         with attention to commercials rated lower (51%).  Most schools choose
to air
 Channel One during homeroom periods, and this could explain the high level
 
         of distraction and inattentiveness to the program (Mueller &
Wulfemeyer,
 
        1993).
        Effects of Channel One's commercials on students viewing the program have
 
         been studied on a limited basis.  In one study, which surveyed 756
children
 
         exposed to Channel One daily, students evaluated products advertised on
the
 
         program more favorably than non-Channel One viewers.  Researchers found
that
 students viewing the program wanted to purchase products they saw on
 
     Channel One more than students who were not exposed to the program
 
  (Greenberg & Brand, 1993).
        Concern over the impact of commercials in schools that receive Channel One
 
         reflects concern in previous studies of the effects of TV content,
 
  especially early Saturday morning advertisements and violence on children.
 
         A study by Wulfemeyer and Mueller (1992) showed that approximately 25
 
     percent of their teen subjects said that advertising, in general, assists
 
         them in deciding what products they will purchase (i.e., clothes,
snacks).
        The buying behaviors of these youngsters have a great deal to do with the
 
         physical and mental changes brought about as a result of puberty.
Because
 
         pre-adolescents (10- to 12-year-olds) lack life experiences and are
becoming
 less family-oriented, they are greatly influenced by their peers and are
 
         more prone to pattern their behaviors (dressing, hair styles, etc.)
after
 
         those in their peer group (Slap, 1986).
        Adolescence, which can be a time of opportunity and vulnerability,
 
   predisposes the youngster to greater sensitivity of outside (peers, etc.)
 
         influences (Brown, Walsh-Childers, & Waszak, 1990).  Adolescents not
only
 
         are affected by ads, but also are affected by how the advertised
products
 
         are presented, with females being especially susceptible to the
         advertisements because of the constant portrayal of beauty on
television
 
        commercials.  They are often left feeling self-conscious (lower
self-esteem)
 because they do not resemble the "social norm" (Brown, Childers, & Waszak,
 
         1990).Impulsiveness and Social Behavior
        Impulsiveness, in teenagers and preteenagers, also involves some
 
 physiological characteristics that are part of this risk-taking behavior.
 
         Although much research has focused on impulsive teenagers and young
adults
 
         (college students) in a lab setting or as it is related to deviant
behavior
 
         (drinking, drug abuse, sexual behavior), not much is known about
         pre-adolescents (ages 10-12) and their impulsive behaviors and
         decision-making processes.
        The struggle for independence usually begins during ages 12 to 14, when
 
        their is a decrease of interest in family activities and more of a
 
  resistance to parental advice.  The period preceding puberty is a time of
 
         constant change; family members no longer get much "quality" time with
their
 children and may feel constantly tested; peers become the primary focus of
 
         the child's life because s/he wants to feel socially acceptable.
        In general, impulsives see their behavior as a product of the environment
 
         -- responsibility is placed on someone or something else.
        The development of impulsive behavior coincides with two important aspects
 
         of the pre-adolescent life stage:  physiological and social
development.
 
         Adolescence is a developmental period that involves changing from
childhood
 
         to adulthood and includes behavioral fluctuations including increasing
 
      movement toward independence, peer acceptance, and rejecting some
 
 conventional social behaviors (Levine, 1987).
        Ferguson and Valenti (1990) theorize that impulsiveness is associated with
 
         a dislike of thinking.  If degree of impulsiveness is high, the
individual
 
         (child) will more likely accept and follow what his or her peers will
say
 
         and do.
        Developmentally, the only aspect of the adolescent that does not change
 
        with puberty is the neural system.  Chronological age does not correlate
 
        well with biological maturation (Slap, 1986).  The range of pubertal
onset
 
         for females is from 8 to 13 years, with completion at 13 to 18, and 95
 
      percent grow most rapidly between 9.7 and 13.3 years.  For males, onset is
 
         9.5 to 13.5 years with completion at 13.5 to 17.5, with 95 percent of
growth
 occurring most rapidly between 11.7 and 15.3 years (Irwin & Millstein,
 
       1986, and Peterson, 1987).
        Although most studies show that boys consistently have higher levels of
 
        most risk-taking behaviors, Heaven (1991) found that for cognitive
 
  impulsiveness and for general impulsiveness (i.e., responding positively to
 
         "Do you buy things on impulse?") girls were more impulsive than boys.
This
 
         finding suggests that there are many dimensions to risk-taking
behavior.
        In younger children (under age 10), impulsivity is often, but not always,
 
         part of other behavioral problems, such as attention-deficit
hyperactivity
 
         disorder (ADHD) (Halperin, Matier, Bedi, Sharma, & Newcorn, 1992).
        Children with impulsive personalities are described as "those who tend to
 
         respond quickly in problem-solving situations, failing to consider
possible
 
         alternatives or correctness of their responses and making errors" (Baer
&
 
         Nietzel, 1991, p. 400).  Their results showed that both cognitive and
 
     behavioral interventions can improve impulsivity in children's behavior.
        Impulsives react differently than those who are less impulsive when
 
    presented with real life situations; they attend to messages differently.
 
         Valenti and Ferguson (1991) conducted four focus groups with 22 college
 
       students and adults (non-students) to discuss messages (about health,
safe
 
         sex, etc.) with impulsive risk takers.  The researchers concluded that
 
      impulsives are more challenging to the professional communicator than
other
 
         risk-takers (i.e. rebellious) because of their unpredictability.
        Studies have noted that impulsive individual rarely think about their
 
      decisions and demand immediate gratification.  For this reason, the
 
   commercials on Channel One may have greater influence on impulsive
 
  preadolescents, especially girls who can be more impulsive than boys.  This
 
         paper reports the results of a study designed to investigate whether
 
    students who view Channel One daily are more likely than students who do not
 view the program at all, to want to buy products regularly advertised on
 
         the newscast.
Understanding Impulsivity Through Measures
        The impulsive measures of this study were primarily based on the the Offer
 
         Self-Image Questionnaire (OSIQ), which has helped researchers
understand
 
        adolescent males and females.  The OSIQ (Offer, 1987) contains 130 items
 
        that cover 11 content areas and five different "selves."  The more
important
 of these selves for impulsiveness and early-developers are the
         Psychological Self, Psychological Self, Social Self, Family Self and
Family
 
         Relationships, and the Coping Self.
        Another important measure of impulsiveness is the "causal model of
 
   risk-taking behavior" developed by Irwin and Millstein (1986) proposes that
 
         age of onset of biological maturity directly influences four
psychosocial
 
         factors:  (1) cognitive scope, (2) self-perceptions, (3) perceptions of
 
       social environment, and (4) personal values.  These factors could predict
 
         risk-taking behavior in the adolescent.
        The study of impulsiveness is pertinent in this study because it can assist
 to better understand the role this characteristic may play in the
 
  decision-making process of pre-teens.  Not much has been done on this
 
     interaction.  Impulsiveness may be determined by genetics, surroundings,
 
        gender, and degree of parental/familial involvement.  To impulsive
 
  pre-adolescents, peer preferences, including products used (food, clothing,
 
         etc.), can determine the need or desire to purchase the product, or how
 
       often the product is purchased.
THE RESEARCH QUESTIONS
        Five hypotheses were generated on the relationships between independent
 
        (impulsiveness and exposure to Channel One newscast) and dependent
(recall
 
         and buying) variables.
 
(1)     Regular daily viewers of Channel One will have a greater desire than
 
        non-Channel One viewers to buy products advertised on the program.
 
(2)  Pre-adolescent females who are daily viewers of Channel One will have
 
         greater aided and unaided recall of products advertised on Channel One
than
 
         will males who view Channel One daily.
 
(3)     Highly impulsive pre-adolescents who are daily viewers of Channel One
 
         will have greater aided and unaided recall of products advertised on
Channel
 One than will less impulsive pre-adolescents.
 
(4)     Impulsive pre-adolescents who are daily viewers of Channel One will have
 a greater desire to buy more products advertised on Channel One than less
 
         impulsive pre-adolescents.
 
(5)     Pre-adolescent females who are daily viewers of Channel One will have a
 
         greater desire than males to buy products regularly advertised on
Channel
 
         One.
        Prior to developing this study, the researchers had the opportunity to view
 some Channel One newscasts.  We theorized that because of the age
 
  similarity in all students, there would not be big difference in impulsivity
 between the control and experimental school.
METHOD
        A field experiment was done with sixth-graders from two middle schools in a
 mid-sized southern university community.  Students at the experimental
 
       school, a public school, viewed Channel One daily, while those at the
 
     control school (a Catholic elementary and middle school) never watched
 
      Channel One.
The Experiment
        Students who viewed Channel One daily were in eight first-period classes
 
         while students from the control school were in their homeroom class.1
A
 
        total of 67 students (experimental, N=51; control, N=16) participated.
        On the first day, students from both control and experimental schools were
 
         asked to complete part one of the questionnaire (one page), which
included
 
         impulsiveness items.
        On the second day  children in the control school were shown a video of the
 same Channel One newscast seen in the experimental school, but commercials
 
         were professionally deleted from the video so that there were no
substantial
 breaks in between commercial segments; the news spots flowed into each
 
       other.
        The researcher deleted the commercials in order to prevent contamination of
 the study in the control school when comparing results with the
         experimental school.
Impulsiveness Measure
        The impulsiveness scale comprised nine items.  One of the impulsive
 
    questions -- "If someone tells me I am doing something the wrong way, I
 
       don't like that and usually get angry or have 'bad feelings" for that
 
     person" -- was eliminated because it did not correlate with the others.
The
 internal consistency was higher when this question was removed from the
 
        index (.71 with all items vs. standardized Cronbach's Alpha = .73 when
it
 
         was not).
        The eight items were summed and averaged to create an index, and this index
 was divided into three categories of high, medium, and low levels of
 
     impulsiveness.2  The low impulsiveness group ranged from .20 to .57, the
 
        moderate group ranged from .571 to .99, while the high group ranged from
 
        1.00 to 1.50.  Responses were "2" (indicated often), "1" (sometimes),
and
 
         "0" (never).
[Table 1 about here]
        Money.  Eight items in the spending scale asked students about spending
 
        behavior.  The standardized Cronbach's Alpha was .75 for this index.
[Table 2 about here]
        A third index was made up of 15 items that asked students to rate their
 
        answer about the likelihood of buying products advertised on Channel
One:
 
         Pepsi, Clearasil, Pizza Hut, Reeboks, Magnavox, Oil of Olay, Gator Aid,
 
       Cheetos/Fritos, Gillette, Burger King, Noxema, Bubble-icious, Certs,
Sure,
 
         Secret.  For each item, the student indicated whether they definitely
would
 
         buy the item.  This scale was internally consistent, with a
standardized
 
        Cronbach's alpha of .79.
[Table 3 about here]
Dependent variables
        One of the dependent variables, unaided recall was a combination of six
 
        questions that asked students about Channel One commercials.
        The questions included:  the number of products mentioned on Channel One
 
         (open-ended question), whether Pepsi or Combo was mentioned, whether a
 
      picture was drawn of the advertised product without labeling the product,
 
         whether a picture drawn of the advertised product with Pepsi or Combo
 
     labeled in the picture, and whether the picture of the advertised product
 
         was named on the line below the picture.
        The six-item scale was summed and averaged, and had moderate levels of
 
       internal consistency (standardized Cronbach's Alpha .64).
[Table 4 about here]
FINDINGS
        The mean age for all students was 11.7 years (SD = .5).  Gender was about
 
         equally distributed with 48% females (N=32) and 52% males (N=35).
About 81%
 (N=54) of the subjects are white, 12% (N=8) black, and 7% are "other."
        When asked about parental educational level ("how far in school do you
 
       think your mom/dad has gone?"), 82% (N=55) of all students said their
 
     mothers had some college education, and 87% (N=58) said their fathers had
 
         some college education.
        Although some students received a large amount of money each week for an
 
         allowance ($15 or more), most students received considerably less
(M=$4.00,
 
         SD=$7.13).
Attention Check
        When asked if they were at their "desk when Channel One started," 91%
 
      (N=61) of all students answered "yes," with 73% (N=49) saying they "paid
 
        attention to some or all of today's Channel One program."  Of those in
the
 
         Channel One school, 66% (N=44) said they like to watch newscasts some
or all
 the time, 24% (N=16) said they were interested in commercials on Channel
 
         One, and 51% (N=34) said they liked the commercials on Channel One.
        When asked about products advertised on the Channel One segment viewed on
 
         the day of the experiment, about 71% (N=38) of students in the
experimental
 
         school mentioned at least one product advertised (Pepsi, Combos, or
both).
Analysis Strategy
        Analysis of variance (ANOVA) was done with experimental and control schools
 as a two-level factor and impulsiveness as a three-level factor.
 
  Impulsiveness, school, and gender were used as independent variables for
 
        almost all dependent variables or indexes (attention, commercial liking,
 
        buying behavior).  For consistency and uniformity, t-tests were done for
all
 hypotheses.
Tests of Hypotheses
 
        (1):  Regular daily viewers of Channel One will have a greater desire than
 
         non-Channel One viewers to buy more products advertised on the program.
        A t-test was used to analyze differences between schools.  This was not
 
        supported for schools on likelihood to buy products advertised on
Channel
 
         One.  The means for students in the experimental school (1.09) and
those in
 
         the control school (.97) were not significantly different.  No
significance
 
         was found between highly impulsive females in both schools and and
highly
 
         impulsive males in both schools.  Also, no significance was found when
using
 only low impulsive females in both schools and low impulsive males in both
 
         schools.
        No significant differences were found between schools with only high
 
     impulsive students (males and females).
        When using the same t-test (i.e., both schools and comparing differences
 
         between genders) for only low impulsive students, a significant main
effect
 
         was found ([t(1,23) = 1.89, p<.04]; Females, M=1.1; Males, M=.8).
        In general, there were no significant differences between students of both
 
         schools on their desire to buy products advertised on Channel One.
 
        (2):  Pre-adolescent females, who are daily viewers of Channel One, will
 
         have greater aided and unaided recall of products advertised on Channel
One
 
         than males.
        A t-test was used to analyze differences between genders for those in the
 
         experimental school.  No main effect was found for gender overall, for
high
 
         impulsive students overall, for high impulsive students in the
experimental
 
         school, and for low impulsive students on aided recall of products
(Pepsi or
 Combo) advertised on Channel One.
        Again, for unaided recall, a t-test was used to analyze differences between
 genders.  No main effect was found for gender overall in both schools, and
 
         for high impulsive students in the experimental sschool.
        When a t-test was used to analyze differences for low impulsive students
 
         only in both schools, a significant main effect was found, ([t(1,21) =
1.92,
 p<.04]; Females, M=.4; Males, M=.2).  Low impulsive females were more
 
      likely than low impulsive males to have greater unaided recall of
 
 commercials on Channel One.
 
        (3):  Highly impulsive pre-adolescents who are daily viewers of Channel One
 will have greater aided and unaided recall of products advertised on
 
     Channel One then less impulsive pre-adolescents.
        A t-test for main effect of impulsiveness on aided recall was not
 
  supported.  When a t-test was used to compare differences in impulsiveness
 
         in the experimental school, but using females only, no significant main
 
       effect was found.  When using males in the experimental school only, a
near
 
         significant main effect was found  ([t(1,17) = 1.65, p<.06]; Low
impulsive,
 
         M=.7; High impulsive, M=1.1).
        Again, a t-test for the main effect of impulsiveness on unaided recall
 
       showed no significance.  When a t-test was used for main effect of
 
  impulsiveness in the experimental school, using females only, no significant
 main effect was found.  When only males were used for this same comparison,
 a near significant main effect was found ([t(1,  17) = 1.45, p<.08]; Low
 
         impulsive, M=.2; High impulsive, M=.3).
 
        (4):  Impulsive pre-adolescents who are daily viewers of Channel One will
 
         have a greater desire to buy more products advertised on Channel One
than
 
         less impulsive pre-adolescents.
        A t-test for main effect of impulsiveness was supported when using students
 in both schools [t(1,46) = 2.32, p<.01].
        When students in both control and experimental schools were asked about
 
        likelihood of buying products advertised on Channel One, highly
impulsive
 
         students (M=1.2) were more likely than low impulsive students (M=1.0)
to say
 they would buy these products.  Those who fell in the medium impulsive
 
       category were not included for this analysis.  Thus the "N" is reduced to
 
         48.  When students in the experimental school only were asked about
 
   likelihood of buying products advertised on Channel One, highly impulsive
 
         students (M=1.2) were more likely than low impulsive students (M=1.0)
to say
 they would buy these products.  A t-test for main effect of impulsiveness
 
         supported this hypotheses [t(1,35) = 2.23, p<.02].
        When using a t-test to compare differences in impulsiveness using the
 
      experimental school and females only, no significant main effect was
found.
 When using only males in the same analysis, a significant main effect was
 
         found ([t(1,17) = 2.36, p<.02]; Low impulsive, M=.9; High impulsive,
M=1.2).
        High impulsive males in the experimental school are more likely, than low
 
         impulsive males, to buy products regularly advertised on Channel One.
        There was no significance when comparing (t-test) differences of
 
 impulsiveness for females and males in the control school only.
 
        (5):  Pre-adolescent females who are daily viewers of Channel One will have
 a greater desire to buy products, that are regularly advertised on Channel
 
         One, than males.
        A t-test was used to analyze differences between genders for likelihood of
 
         buying products on Channel One.  This was not supported.  When
         pre-adolescent males and females in the experimental school were asked
how
 
         likely is it that they would buy products regularly advertised on
Channel
 
         One, the means for females (1.1) and males (1.1) were about about the
same.
        When a t-test was used to analyze differences between genders in the
 
     experimental school, using highly impulsive students only, no significant
 
         main effect was found.  When a t-test was used to analyze differences
 
     between genders for low impulsive students only (in experimental school), a
 
         near significant main effect was found ([t(1,18) = 1.38, p<.09);
Females, M
 
         =1.1; Males, M=.9).
[Table 5 about here]
POST HOC ANALYSIS
        ANOVA was used to determine the interactions of impulsiveness3 with gender
 
         for aided and unaided recall of products advertised on Channel One (as
a
 
        scale and with products individually), parental education, race, amount
 
       spent weekly (as a scale and with expense categories individually),
buying
 
         behavior, and attention to Channel One, for interactions.
        ANOVA was used for likelihood of purchasing each product that was
 
  individually listed in the 15-item "Ads" scale with gender and
         impulsiveness.  Although gender did not significantly interact with
 
   impulsiveness for any product, there were main effects for gender for:  Oil
 
         of Olay [Female, M=1.0; Male, M=.3; F(1,44) = 14.77, p<.001], Noxema
 
    products [Female, M=1.0; Male, M=.3; F(1,46) = 15.00, p<.001], and Secret
 
         deodorant [Female, M=1.2; Male, M=.3; F(1,46) = 21.46, p<.001].
Females are
 more likely to buy beauty and hygience products than males.
        A significant main effect was found for impulsiveness on:  Gator Aid [Low,
 
         M=1.2; High, M=1.6; F(1,44) = 4.06], p<.05], Fritos snacks [Low, M=1.0;
 
       High, M=1.5; F(1,44) = 5.00, p<.03], Bubble-icious bubble gum [Low, M=.9;
 
         High, M=1.3; F(1,46) = 7.39, p<.01], and Sure deodorant [Low, M=.7;
High, M
 
         =1.2; F(1,46) = 8.37, p<.01].  Impulsives are more likely to buy food
and
 
         snacks such as Gator Aid, Fritos snacks, Bubble-icious bubble gum, and
other
 products such as Sure deodorant probably because food items seem more
 
      appealing, and they may have chosen Sure because it may be a popular item
 
         with their peers.
Spending behavior
        A significant main effect was found on "never having enough money" to spend
 [Female, M=.5; Male, M=.9; F(1,46) = 3.94, p<.05].  Females are less likely
 to feel they have little or no money to spend.
        A significant interaction was found for impulsiveness and gender on having
 
         "money in an account."  For males, impulsiveness had no effect on
having
 
        money in a savings account (Low vs. High Impulsiveness, M=1.4 vs.
M=1.5).
 
         But high impulsive females are more likely to have less money in a
savings
 
         account (M=1.1) than females who are low impulsives (M=1.9); [F(1,46) =
 
       4.28, p<.04]
[Figure 1 about here]
Impulsiveness and Exposure to Channel One
        A significant main effect was found for school on "Did you pay attention to
 today's Channel One show" [Experimental school, M=.6; Control school,
 
      M=1.0; F(1,45) = 6.47, p<.01].  Children in the control school are more
 
       likely to have paid attention to the Channel One newscast on this
particular
 day.
        A significant main effect for school was found for exposure to Channel One
 
         on "I buy a product because I know it is good" [Experimental, M=1.4;
 
    Control, M=1.8; F(1,46) = 3.95, p<.05].  Those in the control school were
 
         more likely to say that they buy a product because they know it is
good.
Impulsiveness with likelihood of buying products and weekly spending
        A significant main effect was found for likelihood of buying products
 
      advertised on Channel One with (average) amount of money spent.  The
"money"
 scale included the average amount of money spent each week on clothes,
 
       snack food, lunch food, make up, hair products, sports items, electronics
 
         and other items.  Only low spenders (N=23, M=$1.18) and high spenders
(N=7,
 
         M=$21.57) were used for analysis with impulsiveness and likelihood of
buying
 products advertised on Channel One [Low, M=.9; High, M=1.4; F(1,21) = 4.22,
 p<.05].  Only low and high spenders were used for the similar reasons that
 
         low and high impulsives were used for analysis -- to see if the amount
of
 
         spending dictated differences for this behavior.  Impulsive
pre-adolescents
 
         who spend more money are more likely to buy products advertised on
Channel
 
         One.
Parental education and race with likelihood of buying products advertised on
 Channel One
        Child's race and father's education interacted to affect the likelihood of
 
         getting money from parents to buy something the student wanted [F(1,61)
=
 
         7.48, p<.01].
[Figure 2 about here]
        Minority students whose father had a high school degree or less indicated a
 greater likelihood of getting more from parents to buy something they
 
      wanted (M=2.0) than did non-minority students (M=.3).  But among those
with
 
         fathers who had more than a high school education, minority status made
no
 
         difference (M=1.1, non-minority; vs. M=1.2, minority).
        A significant main effect was found on child's race and father's education,
 and child's race and mother's education on buying:  Reeboks [Non-minority,
 
         M=1.0; Minority, M=1.7; F(1,61) = 10.36, p<.002], Magnavox products
 
   [Non-minority, M=1.3; Minority, M=.7; F(1,61) = 5.39, p<.02], Fritos snacks
 
         [Non-minority,M=1.1; Minority, M=1.7; F(1,59) = 7.03, p<.01], and
 
 Bubble-icious bubble gum [Non-minority, M=1.1; Minority, M=1.5; F(1,61) =
 
         5.06, p<.03].  Non-minority students said they were more likely to buy
 
      Magnavox products, while minority students said they were more likely to
buy
 Reeboks, Fritos snacks, and Bubble-icious gum.
        A significant main effect was also found for Mother's education on Pepsi
 
         [High school or less, M=1.7; Some college of more, M=1.3; F(1,61) =
3.95, p
 
         <.05].  Students whose mother had a high school education or less, were
more
 likely to pick Pepsi.  Students in the experimental school whose mother's
 
         had a high school education or less were more likely to say they "liked
the
 
         commercials" on Channel One [High school or less, M=1.0; Some college
or
 
        more M=.6; F(1,44) = 6.07, p<.02].
 
DISCUSSION
        This study investigated possible relationships between impulsiveness in
 
        pre-adolescents and desire to purchase products regularly advertised on
 
       Channel One.
        Although much research has been done on how students attend to the overall
 
         segments of the newscast, how much knowledge is gained from the daily
 
     viewing, and specifically, attention to commercials and commercial liking,
 
         no research has provided insight on how impulsive pre-adolescents react
to
 
         Channel One.
Summary of Hypotheses
        In general, there was no significant difference between genders on aided
 
         and unaided recall of products advertised on Channel One, but females
in the
 experimental school were more likely than males to want to buy products
 
        that were regularly advertised on the newscast.  No significant
difference
 
         was seen in degree of impulsivity on aided and unaided recall of
products
 
         advertised on Channel One, but high impulsive preadolescents in the
 
   experimental school were more likely than low-impulsives to buy products
 
        that were advertised on the newscast.  No difference was found between
the
 
         Channel One and experimental school in likelihood to buy products
advertised
 on the newscast.
Other Findings
        Degree of impulsiveness did not differ between control and experimental
 
        schools, but those in the control school were more likely to say they
would
 
         buy a product because they knew "it was good."  Although most of the
 
    hypotheses were not supported, other interesting findings emerged from this
 
         study, such as knowledge about how gender interacts with impulsiveness
on
 
         spending money, and the degree to which pre-adolescents are likely to
buy
 
         specific products usually advertised on Channel One.
        Females, regardless of degree of impulsiveness, are less likely to have
 
        enough money to spend and less likely to have money in savings, than
their
 
         male peers.  Students who regularly view Channel One were more likely
to buy
 products regularly advertised on the newscast.  These results are partially
 supported by findings from Heaven (1991), whose study found that females
 
         are generally more impulsive by nature, including buying behavior, and
 
      Greenberg and Brand (1993), who found that those who are daily viewers of
 
         Channel One are more likely to have a favorable attitude towards
products
 
         advertised on the newscast.
        More impulsive students were more likely to buy products (in general)
 
      advertised on Channel One, and also more impulsive students in the
 
  experimental school were more likely to buy specific products (Gator Aid,
 
         Fritos snacks).  Impulsive students who spend more money on a weekly
basis
 
         for specific products (make up, sports items, etc.) are more likely to
want
 
         to buy products advertised on Channel One.
        When analyzing the effect of parental education and (child's) race on
 
      buying products advertised on Channel One, some significance was found for
 
         child's race on specific products (Reeboks, Magnavox, Fritos snacks,
and
 
        Bubble-icious bubble gum).
Limitations of the Study
        The researcher acknowledges that the "desire to buy" a product is no
 
     indication that the product will actually be bought.  The questionnaire was
 
         worded in the manner presented because this was consistent with the
wording
 
         of other surveys and questionnaires used in studies for this age group.
 
        Therefore, acknowledging that a student would like to buy a product does
not
 conclude that they will actually buy that product or influence a parent or
 
         other family member to buy the product.
        Although the questionnaire was tailored for children in the 10-12 year old
 
         range, there should have been more specific questions presented about
the
 
         commercials on Channel One.  The questions were specifically revised
for
 
        students 10 - 12 years of age, but some questions still were not clear.
        As for the four scales, three had an internal consistency that was
 
   moderately high (.70 or above), while the scale for unaided recall of
 
     products was less consistent (.64).  The findings for unaided recall may
 
        have less validity than the other findings.
Validity
        This study was a quasi-experimental design (a "Nonequivalent Control Group
 
         Design") because of the impossibility of randomly assigning students to
in
 
         Channel One school.
        No great differences in impulsiveness existed between children in the
 
      control and experimental schools according to the analysis of variance.
But
 the atmosphere and students in the control school was quite different,
 
       partially due to the school being smaller than the experimental school, a
 
         different curriculum, and the control school being private (parochial)
and
 
         Christian.  It is difficult to ascertain what degree of educational
 
   differences in the two schools.  This aspect was not compared in the study.
 
        Although children in the control school were actually distracted from their
 routine, they seemed to be able to answer all questions with more leisure
 
         than those in the Channel One school.  This change in routine could
have
 
        affected their attention and recall to the Channel One tape they viewed,
 
        minus the commercials.
        The results of this study should not be generally applied to other schools,
 even in the same community because this would be premature.
        In addition, the study should have had a larger control group.  The number
 
         of students used in a control group was due to time constraints and
only a
 
         limited number of control schools were available for the study.
        Another limitation of the study was that the attitude of the children who
 
         viewed Channel One daily, toward the newscast, could not be observed
over
 
         the course of the school year.4  For many students in the sixth-grade
 
     classrooms of the experimental school, this was their first exposure to
 
       Channel One.  Students may be more interested, or be more attentive to
the
 
         newscast, at the begining of the school year.
        The researcher believes that Channel One could be beneficial, or at the
 
        least, cause little harm to pre-adolescents exposed to the newscast on a
 
        daily basis.
        The school environment should be considered as a whole, and not as a part
 
         of a whole.  If integrated into the school curriculum, Channel One has
the
 
         potential to help students better understand current events.  The
format of
 
         Channel One, which includes young narrators, produces stories that are
 
      visually attractive to the teenager and pre-teenager.
        The controversy surrounding Channel One is predominatly focused on the two
 
         minutes of commercials during the newscast, and administrators are
concerned
 about the influence of commercials and advertisements.  The commercials on
 
         Channel One can be used to teach students how advertisers and producers
use
 
         atmosphere, music, color, and characters to sell their products.  Also,
 
       there are many other forms of advertisements that inhabit schools, such
as
 
         magazines, videos, and vending machines.
        No significant difference was seen in how likely students in the control
 
         and experimental school were to pick products advertised on Channel
One.
 
         Since students in both schools were exposed to these products and to
 
    commercials outside the classroom, Channel One has little effect, in
 
    general, on how many students desired to buy these products.
        Females from both schools were more likely to have less money to spend and
 
         have less money in savings, and were more likely to buy certain
products,
 
         such as beauty aids, regularly advertised on Channel One.  Highly
impulsive
 
         students were more likely to buy products generally advertised on
Channel
 
         One, and were also more likely to buy specific products, such as food
and
 
         snacks.
        The literature on teenage females show that they are more likely to have
 
         greater body dissatisfaction and eating disorders and attend to TV and
media
 portrayals of females as glamorous.  This may be because the onset of
 
      puberty for females begins approximately one year before males, and
females
 
         follow what they see on TV and print.
        Pre-adolescent females and highly impulsive students seem to be more likely
 to buy products, and females also seem to have greater impulsive spending
 
         behavior than their male counterparts.
Future Research
        Future research in the area of impulsiveness and studies on Channel One
 
        should concentrate on changes in attitude to products advertised on the
 
       program.  Studies should compare beginning of school year and end of
school
 
         year attitudes.
        Two schools that view Channel One should be chosen, in addition to two
 
       control schools.  The population of both the experimental and control
groups
 should be larger, giving more diversity to the study.
 
FOOTNOTES
 
 
1Students from the experimental school were chosen from classrooms whose
 
        teachers volunteered to participate in the study.  Students in these
 
      classrooms were given permission forms to take home and return to their
 
         first-period class teachers.  Teachers were briefed about the study and
 
         instructed how to collect the permission forms.  The control school had
only
 one sixth-grade classroom, but the procedure for collecting consent forms,
 
           and instruct- ing the teacher was the same as in the Channel One
school.
 
2Only those high in impulsiveness (N=24) or low impulsives (N=26) were used
 
         in this analysis.  Those with moderate impulsiveness scores were
eliminated
 
           (N=14).
 
3Only those high in impulsiveness (N=24) or low impulsives (N=26) were used
 
         in this analysis.  Those with moderate impulsiveness scores were
eliminated
 
           (N=14).
 
4This study was conducted at the end of the 1992-93 school year.
 
Table 1
Impulsiveness Scale Items*
_DDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDD_
_                                                         _
_Individual Item                                                Mean       SD   _
_DDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDD_
_                                                         _
_1. I laugh a lot without being able to      1.09          .71  _
_   control what I am doing.                              _
_                                                         _
_2. I am afraid something will happen.          1.08       .64  _
_                                                         _
_3. I get angry very easy over most things.      .94       .67  _
_                                                         _
_4. When others are demanding or want         .90          .68  _
_   things from me and want them right NOW,               _
_   I cannot stay calm.                                   _
_                                                         _
_5. I stay mad at people for a long time         .84       .67  _
_   for something they did.                               _
_                                                         _
_6. I cannot control my temper.            .78     .57  _
_                                                         _
_7. If someone tells me I am doing               .66       .59  _
_   something the wrong way, I don't like                 _
_   that and usually get angry or have "bad               _
_   feelings" for that person.a                           _
_                                                         _
_8. I cannot control myself.                             .58       .66  _
_                                                         _
_9. I cry a lot without being able               .43       .61  _
_   to control what I am doing.                           _
_                                                         _
_10.I get very much out of control               .33       .56  _
_   (violent) if I do not get "my way."                   _
_                                                         _
_                               Scale Mean = .76, SD = .33            _
_DDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDD_
 
Table 2
 
Average Amount of Money Spent Each Week on Specific Purchases
_DDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDD_
_     Individual Item                            Mean     SD    _
_DDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDD_
_                                                         _
_1.  Amount spent on clothes                    $15.39  $37.29  _
_                                                         _
_2.  Amount spent on sports items                 7.86   22.97  _
_                                                         _
_3.  Amount spent on food (snacks)                5.92      8.69  _
_                                                         _
_4.  Amunt spent on electronic games      5.77     18.79  _
_                                                         _
_5.  Amount spent on food (school lunch)  3.74    7.45  _
_                                                         _
_6.  Amount spent on hair products                2.99    5.43  _
_                                                         _
_7.  Amount spent on other items                  1.92    6.29  _
_                                                         _
_8.  Amount spent on make-up                       .53      1.45  _
_                                                                     _
_                       Scale Mean = $5.27, SD = $9.29             _
_                                                         _
_DDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDD_
 
Table 3
Likelihood of Buying Brands Advertised on Channel One
_DDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDD_
_                                                         _
_ Advertised Products                           Mean             SD     _
_DDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDD_
_                                                         _
_1.  Pizza Hut                                          1.46            .61     _
_                                                         _
_2.  Burger King                                        1.42            .64     _
_                                                         _
_3.  Pepsi**                                            1.36         .65     _
_                                                         _
_4.  Gator Aid                                          1.32            .68     _
_                                                         _
_5.  Certs products                                     1.21            .60     _
_                                                         _
_6.  Fritos/Cheetos (snacks)**          1.19         .73     _
_                                                         _
_7.  Reeboks                                            1.18            .70     _
_                                                         _
_8.  Bubble-icious bubble gum                   1.17            .67     _
_                                                         _
_9.  Magnavox                                           1.12            .81     _
_                                                         _
_10. Sure deodorant                                      .94            .72     _
_                                                         _
_11. Clearasil                                           .91            .72     _
_                                                         _
_12. Secret deodorant                            .71            .78     _
_                                                         _
_13. Gillette                                            .71            .76     _
_                                                         _
_14. Noxema                                              .67            .79     _
_                                                         _
_15. Oil of Olay                                         .56            .73     _
_                                                         _
_                                                         _
_                                       Scale Mean = 1.06, SD = .37      _
_DDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDD_
 
Table 4
 
Unaided Recall of Products Advertised on Channel One
 
_DDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDD_
_                                                         _
_         Question                                        Mean   SD     _
_DDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDD_
_                                                         _
_1). In the space provided below,          .31  .74     _
_    please write in your own words,                      _
_    everything you remember from                         _
_    the Channel One program today.                       _
_    (Open-ended question; only number                    _
_    of statements about the products                     _
_    were used here.)                                     _
_                                                         _
_(2). Please draw something you remember                  _
_    seeing on the Channel One program                    _
_    today?  After you draw this picture,                 _
_    write under it what it is.                           _
_                                                         _
_       (a) Drawing of product, no label           .05  .21     _
_       (b) Drawing of product with a label   .06    .24     _
_       (c) Named product under picture    .10    .31     _
_                                                         _
_(3). What things were advertised on the                  _
_    commercials on Channel One?                          _
_                                                         _
_       (a) Pepsi                                                  .59  .50     _
_       (b) Combos                                         .35    .48     _
_                                                         _
_                                                         _
_                               Scale Mean = .27, SD = .26            _
_DDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDD_
 
Table 5
Aided and Unaided Recall
_DDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDD_
_                     (Means)/Statistic       (Means)/Statistic _
_                     for Aided Recall           for Unaided    _
_                                            Recall       _
_Independent                                              _
_ Variable                                                _
_                                                         _
_Gender:                                                  _
_Female              (.80)                   (.32)        _
_                                                         _
_Male                (.85)                   (.24)        _
_                t(1,49)=.29, p<.39    t(1,49)=1.09, p<.14_
_                                                         _
_Impulsiveness:                                           _
_Low                 (.76)                   (.30)        _
_                                                         _
_High                (.94)                   (.30)        _
_                t(1,37)=.97, p<.17     t(1,37)=.06, p<.48_
___________________________________________________________
_               Likelihood of Buying Advertised Products        _
_                                                         _
_                               Means           Statistic              _
_Gender:                                                  _
_Female                 1.14            t(1,46)=.78, p<.22          _
_Male                   1.05                                  _
_                                                         _
_Impulsiveness:                                           _
_Low                             .95            t(1,46)=2.32, p<.01         _
_High                   1.18                                  _
_                                                         _
_Channel One School:                                      _
_Yes                            1.09            t(1,62)=1.18, p<.12         _
_No                              .97                          _
_DDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDD_
 
 
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