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Cultural Differences in Specific versus Diffuse Dimension:
A Design and Message Comparison between American and Korean Brand

Submitted for presentation to the 2005 AEJMC conference
(Advertising Division)


March 2005


Jong Woo Jun (contact person)
Ph.D. Student
Advertising Doctoral Program
College of Journalism and Communications
University of Florida
G035, Weimer Hall, Po Box 118400
Gainesville, Florida 32611-8400
Tel: 352-846-1060
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And

Hyung-Seok Lee
Ph.D. Student
College of Journalism and Communications
University of Florida

ABSTRACT

This study explores the differences in brand execution for different 
cultures, Korea and the U. S. The purpose of this paper is to 
identify the role of specific/diffuse dimension on brand-marks and 
taglines. The finding indicates that Korean brands are generally more 
diffusive than those of the U. S. Specifically, Korean brand-marks 
used more abstract and symbolic creative designs than those of the U. 
S., and Korean brand-taglines suggest more additional values compared 
to the U. S. Directions for refinement and future research are identified.




INTORDUCTION
	Today the main stream of marketing communication is the global 
approach. Not only a growing number of marketing communication 
messages crossed borders, but also corporation itself became truly 
global moving their headquarters to other countries. In this market 
environment, to craft more persuasive communication across cultures, 
it is indispensable for advertisers to understand local cultural 
value and then reflect it in the content of marketing communication 
(Aaker, 2000).
Cultural differences are the main obstacles to communicate with 
global consumers. To solve the conflicts stemmed from cultural 
differences, and to develop theoretical approaches broadening the 
understanding of different cultures, it is needed to search the way 
to explain similarities and differences existing in various cultures. 
The main method in those approaches is the way of studying the 
differences of intercultural communication by means of the variation 
of cultural dimension. Five cultural dimensions of Hofstede (1980, 
1983, 1984, 1991) and the hidden dimension of Hall and Hall (1987) 
were the representative way to those approaches. Contextualism of 
Hall (1989) and collectivism and individualism of Hofstede (1980) are 
the most popular cultural dimensions in analysis of cross cultural 
marketing communication. Anthropological theories of Hofstede and 
Hall have been acknowledged for the wide applications, but the 
limited explanation power due to the drawing process and the worn-out 
of the cultural dimensions has been a problem. The development of new 
dimensions is needed to complement the dimensions of Hall and 
Hofstede (Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner, 1998). As a step to 
supplement the above-described limit, Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner 
(1998) suggested new seven cultural dimensions; universalism versus 
particularism, individualism versus collectivism, neutral versus 
emotional, specific versus diffuse, achievement versus ascription, 
orientation in time, and attitudes towards the environment. Among the 
seven dimensions, this paper will focus on specific and diffuse 
dimension since this new cultural dimension in advertising provides a 
rationale for cross-cultural differences.
	In this paper, CI (Corporate Identity) is chosen to study the 
cultural difference as a subject to be examined. CI is the 
representative form in marketing communication with consumers, it but 
did not draw attentions in academic fields of communication. 
Normally, a company's CI is constituted of brand-mark, typography, 
and tagline (Wheeler, 2003). This study focuses on brand-marks and 
tagline as subjects, and Korea and the U. S. are chosen to compare 
the cultural distance in each brand. Cultural distance was originally 
defined as a relative difference between cultures. This concept was 
employed to account for basic dissimilarities between brands in 
American and Korean company.
The main purposes of this study are threefold: 1) to clarify to what 
extent Trompenaars' specific/diffuse dimension can explain a variety 
of differences in communication practices such as brand-marks and 
taglines, and 2) to provide the information about the styles of brand 
design through comparing two country's CI (e.g., the U.S. and Korea), 
3) to explore the cultural differences among brand taglines in U.S. 
and Korea. Finally, this study is to help both advertising scholars 
and practitioners suggesting different brand design elements and 
tagline copy through analysis of brand-marks and tagline, and to 
develop various tools to build the effective brand-marks and taglines.
LITERATURE REVIEW
Cross-cultural studies in marketing communications between Korea and the U.S.
The literature on cultural differences between Korea and the U.S. 
indicated that marketing communication would be different according 
to their cultural orientation, such as high or low context, value 
direct/confrontational or indirect/harmony-seeking behaviors, and 
individualistic or group oriented (Miracle, Chang, &Taylor, 1992).
With regard to context, Hall (1976) suggested that the U. S. is 
categorized to a relatively low context culture; on the other hand, 
Korean culture has high context nature. For example, Taylor, Miracle, 
and Wilson (1997)  found that in television commercials the U.S. 
subjects responded more favorably to high information levels in 
commercials than did the Korean subjects. In addition, in the 
magazine advertising, emotional appeals are dominant in headline of 
Korean magazines, but rational appeals more predominate overall and 
in the illustrations. Compared to U.S. advertisement, Korean magazine 
advertising uses more emotional appeals, while differences vary 
across product category and executional method (Jeon, Franke, 
Huhmann, & Phelps, 1999).
Regarding confrontation, Korean culture has more a tendency to avoid 
confrontation in communication than the U.S. For example, its style 
is characterized as accommodation oriented as opposed to 
confrontation oriented (Yum, 1987) and the U.S. commercials adopt 
more direct speeches (Cho, Kwon, Gentry, Jun, & Kropp, 1999). Kang 
(1988) and Gudykunst et al. (1987) also found that Koreans tend to 
prefer indirect and non-confrontational communication, while 
Americans tend to prefer a direct and confrontational approach. 
Therefore, it might be expected that the presence of a brand as a 
means of differentiating it from others will require a relatively 
direct and confrontational approach in the U. S., while commercials 
will contain relatively fewer direct references to the brand in Korea 
(Stewart & Furse, 1986).
According to Hofstede (1980), with regard to individualism, the U.S. 
and Korea are located at opposite poles of the individualism scale. 
The U.S. ranked the highest among the 53 countries in value placed on 
individualistic behavior. In contrast, Korea ranked relatively low on 
individualism and high on collectivist behavior. For instance, the 
U.S. advertisements used more individualistic appeals and less 
collectivistic appeals than Korean advertisements. That is, the U.S. 
advertisements were more likely than Korean advertisements to 
emphasize independence, self-reliance, self-improvement, and personal 
rewards, and less likely to emphasize interdependence, family 
integrity, in-group goals, and concern for others (Belk & Bryce, 
1986; Han & Shavitt, 1994; Miracle et al., 1992; Mueller, 1987).
Based on the literature, it is obvious that advertisements reflecting 
local cultural values are more persuasive than those than ignore 
them. However, Miracle et al. (1992) found an unexpected pattern in 
television advertising. According to them, the brand name, logo, 
product, and package are notified earlier in Korean commercials, and 
almost all Korean commercials notify the brand, but only 56 percent 
of the U.S. commercials notify brand in the commercials. They 
concluded that "Korean advertiser must feel that consumers usually 
base purchases of most products and services at least in part on the 
reputation of the company, whereas in the U.S. the reputation of the 
company seems to be considered important to consumers in only about 
half of television commercials" (Miracle et al., 1992, p.15).
Although product advertising has always been a central arena of 
research in marketing communication, little is known about what 
differences exist in the brand execution used in different 
cultures.  Therefore, this study is intended to fill this gap in the 
literature by examining the potential implication of cultural 
differences specific to brand execution.
New cultural dimension: Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner
Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner (1998, 2000) posited that the cultural 
orientation can be categorized by three general purposes. First, the 
one best way of organizing does not exist. Second is to differentiate 
our own culture from general differences of cultures. Third is to 
provide to insight to the dilemma of global versus local. Based on 
these purposes, they suggested a model of seven cultural dimensions 
to understand cultural difference in business (1998).
Among seven dimensions, the five factors involve relationships with 
other people. They are: universalism versus particularism, 
individualism versus collectivism, neutral versus emotional, specific 
versus diffuse, and achievement versus ascription. The other two 
dimensions include orientation in time and attitudes towards the environment.
	The first dimension is Universalism versus Particularism. 
Universalism represents the culture in which social norms dominate 
and people are accustomed to follow them. Particularism represents 
the culture that focus on friends, brother, sister, or special 
relationship than universal citizen.	Universalism is common to North 
American and overall North Europeans such as the U.S., Germany, and 
Swiss etc. They have universal norms, and universal company cultures. 
On the contrary, French, Russian, almost all Asians resist the inflow 
of universal culture persisting indigenous culture, and conflict with 
adoption of global culture (Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner, 2000).
The second dimension is Individualism versus Communitarianism. This 
dimension has similarity with that of Hofstede, but trend of country 
are somewhat different. For example, U.S. and North America have 
individualism tendency, Asian countries including Germany, England, 
Canada, France, Russia have low tendency of individualism 
(Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner, 2000).
	The third is Neutral versus Emotional. This dimension evaluates the 
culture by the degree to which the ration and emotion dominate the 
role in the relationship between people. The people in emotionally 
neutral culture control the emotions, but those in affective culture 
express their emotions by laugh, smile, sneer, and gestures. In the 
study to distinguish the cultural difference of emotional expression, 
Ethiopia (81%) and Japan (74%) were the most neutral, in Europe, 
Austria (59%) was the most neutral, and Italy (33%) and France (30%) 
were more affective (Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner, 2000).
	The fourth is Specific versus Diffuse cultures. Among the dimensions 
Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner developed, specific versus diffuse 
cultural dimension is main object in this paper. It is a new 
dimension that Hall and Hofstede did not think of. This dimension has 
a similarity with monochromic/polychromic dimension of Hall (1983) 
meaning time concept, and contextual cultural dimension of Hall and 
Hall(1987). Further, it adopted a part from the concept of 
individualism/collectivism of Hofstede. The specific versus diffuse 
dimension is correlated with Power distance, individualism, and Long 
term orientation (Hofstede, 1996). The specific culture means the 
individual disposition distinguishing personal life from public 
affairs, but diffuse culture is a collectivistic disposition not 
distinguishing it.
Specifically, in the question that "a boss asks a subordinate to help 
him paint his house", the percentage of Korean respondents who would 
not paint the house was 65%, and was 82% in U.S. respondents 
(Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner, 1998). In another question that 
"should the company provide the housing?", the percentage of Korean 
respondents who disagree, was 35%, that oh U.S. respondents was 85%. 
In this regard, peripheral variables intervene to the relationship 
and communication in diffusive cultures. It can be hypothesized as follows.
H1: Korean brand taglines will be suggesting more additional values
        than American brand taglines.
In specific cultures, the areas of privacy distinctively separated 
from public life, and there is considerable freedom for direct 
speech. People in specific culture frequently use "Do not take this 
personally". It can be insult in relationship with diffuse people 
(Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner, 1998). In the brand tagline, we can 
hypothesize H2, and in the brand-marks, H3 could be hypothesized.
H2: American brand taglines will be more direct speech than Korean 
brand taglines.
H3: Korean brand-marks will be more abstract and symbolic than American
         brand-marks.
	Other dimensions are Achievement versus Ascription, Attitudes to 
time, and Attitudes to environment. The dimension of Achievement 
versus Ascription focuses on the status whether it is achieved or 
ascribed. Attitudes to time are divided to sequential/synchronous, 
and shows similar pattern of Hall's cognitive trend of time concept. 
Attitudes to environment, the last dimension, are constituted of 
inner direction/outer direction. Inner-directed culture regard the 
nature controllable, and outer-directed culture believe that humans 
are a part of nature, so have to harmonize with the nature. As a 
summary, table1 shows the comparative differences between Korea and 
the U.S. This table is rearranged based on Hofstede's culture and 
Organization, Trompenaars et al.'s Riding waves of culture, and 
Hall's Hidden Dimension.
------------------------------
Table1 about here
------------------------------
Research Question
To further assess differing brand design strategies used in these 
brand-marks, stylistic techniques are also compared in the following 
research question.
RQ1: How do Korean and U.S. brand design differ in terms of topology 
and use of design
           style (e.g., color and design motive).
METHOD
	Based on the foregoing discussion of the specific/diffuse cultural 
dimension, we developed hypotheses and used content analysis as an 
exploratory step to examine the reflection of this dimension in the 
brand-marks and brand-taglines of Korean and the U.S. company. Riffe, 
Lacy, and Fico (1998, p. 20) defined content analysis in the following way.
Quantitative content analysis is the systematic and replicable 
examination of symbols of communication, which have been assigned 
numeric values according to valid measurement rules, and the analysis 
of relationships involving those values using statistical methods, in 
order to describe the communication, draw inferences about its 
meaning, or infer from the communication to its context, both of 
production and consumption.
The procedure is a multi-step process that requires developing 
categories for coding thematic content, training coders, coding the 
categorical data, and statistically analyzing the coded data (Cho et 
al., 1999).
Sample
	Brand-marks and taglines of the top 100 companies in both Korea and 
U.S. constitute the sampling universe. It is because the top 100 
companies are the truly multinational corporations, and the brand is 
really important in the international marketing communication to the 
multinational corporations. Korean samples were collected from the 
2003 Naver directory (http://dir.naver.com), the Korean portal site, 
and the U.S. samples were collected from 2004 Fortune 500 largest the 
U.S. corporations. Brand-marks and taglines were captured from their 
corporate websites which show their CI on the top.
Coding Scheme
All Korean (n = 100) or American (n = 100) brand were coded by two 
coders who were bilingual English and Korean speakers. Practice 
coding was conducted to train the codes and refine the categorization 
scheme. Inter-coder reliability test was done according to Holsti's 
formula (Wimmer & Dominick, 2003). The inter-coder reliability was 80 percent.
As previously mentioned, the brand-mark is operationally defined as 
the symbol in the CI. In the case that CI has additional pictorial, 
the pictorial represents the brand-mark. When CI has only word type 
typography, the typography represents the brand-marks. The tagline is 
a short phrase that captures a company's brand essence, personality, 
and positioning, and distinguishes it from its competitors (Wheeler, 
2003). Taglines frequently have a shorter life span than visual 
identities, and like advertising campaigns, they are more susceptible 
to market place and lifestyle changes (Wheeler, 2003). A tagline is a 
slogan, clarifier, mantra, company statement or guiding principle 
that describes, synopsizes or helps create an interest (Traverso, 
2000). This tagline is operationally defined as a sentence attached 
to the CI or first mentioned sentence in web front page in this 
paper. Tagline is different from advertising slogan in the point that 
it is attached to the CI or used with brand together.
The first variable, additional value, reflecting the diffuse of the 
brand value in taglines, was measured by the absent (coded as "0"), 
and the present (coded as "1"). The present categories includes the 
family (coded as "1"), friend (coded as "2"), Neighbor (coded as 
"3"), name of own country (coded as "4"), future (coded as "5"), 
dream (coded as "6"), and emotion (coded as "7"). Direct speech 
examined includes the imperative, superlative, and provocative. The 
categories of taglines followed the classifications of Wheeler 
(2003). Wheeler classified the expression of taglines as four 
categories. They are imperative, superlative, provocative, and 
descriptive. Among them, first three categories were adopted to 
represent direct speech except the descriptive expression. Imperative 
expression commands action and usually starts with verb. Superlative 
expression stresses positions the company as best in class. 
Provocative means thought-provoking, and normally is a form of 
question (Wheeler, 2003).
	In the brand-marks, the variable, direct speech was measured by logo 
shapes. Logo shapes are measured by the word-mark (coded as "1"), 
letterform mark (coded as "2"), pictorial (coded as "3"), and 
abstract/symbolic (coded as "4"). These categories represent ordinal 
value. The smaller, the number, the more brand-marks are abstract and 
indirect. The classification of brand-marks followed Wheeler's (2003,  p.84).
A word-mark is a freestanding word or words. It may be a company name 
or an acronym. Marks including letterforms are the single letter used 
as a distinctive graphic focal point for a brand-mark. A pictorial 
mark uses a literal and recognizable image. The image itself may 
allude to the name of the company or its mission, or it may be 
symbolic of a brand attribute. An abstract mark uses visual form to 
convey a big idea or a brand attribute. These marks, by their nature, 
can provide strategic ambiguity, and work effectively for large 
companies with numerous and unrelated divisions.
The creative motive was classified as letter, circle, triangle, 
square, human, animal, nature, tradition, star, national flag, and 
amorphous expression. To figure out the differences between Korean 
and the U.S. brand, first between-group t-test and Chi-square test 
were used, and to determine the linear combination of the independent 
variables that best classify cases into country classification, 
Multiple Discriminant Analysis was used.
RESULTS
	The between-group t-test is used to examine the country differences 
between Korean and the U.S. brand-taglines. The independent variable 
is country, and the dependent variables are additional value and 
direct speech respectively. Table 2 illustrates the results of 
between-group t-tests showing means, standard deviations, and t-values.
------------------------------
Table2 about here
------------------------------
Additional value of Korea is higher than that of the U.S. The mean 
difference was statistically significant (p<.05). Study results 
suggest that Korean taglines contain more additional values than 
their U.S. counterparts. Korean taglines offer more value such as 
family, friend, neighbor, and emotion etc. They are not the core 
value that company's products provide, and the characteristics of 
diffusive culture. These results support the hypothesis1. Direct 
speech of the U.S. is slightly higher than that of Korea. The mean 
difference was not statistically significant (p>.05). Hypothesis2 is 
not supported. It means that there is no difference between Korea and 
the U.S. in terns of direct speech in the tagline analysis.
	Chi-square is used to test the hypothesis 3 assuming that Korean 
brand-marks are more symbolic than the U.S. ones. The first 
categorical variable is brand shape, and the second categorical 
variable is country. Table 3 illustrates the results of Chi-Square 
test showing frequencies, ?2 value, and degree of freedom.
------------------------------
Table3 about here
------------------------------
As shown in table 3, 56 percent of Korean brand-marks are pictorial 
(33 percent) and symbolic (23 percent), but the percent of U.S. 
brand-marks is 34 percent: pictorial 26 percent, symbolic 8 percent, 
respectively. In the category of word-mark and letter form, U.S. 
brand-marks took 66 percent, and Korean brand-marks are 44 percent. 
The results are statistically significant (?2=12.72, p<0.01) and can 
be projected on to the population company from which the same 200 
subjects were taken. The result indicates that there is significant 
relationship between Korea and the U.S. toward the shape of 
brand-marks. It means that Korean brand-marks are more abstract and 
symbolic than their American counterparts.
In the general information of brand-marks in terms of topology and 
design style, the most frequently used creative motive of Korean and 
U.S. brand-marks is the letter including the alphabet and number, but 
second ranked motive is the circle for Korean and the square for the 
U.S. Interestingly, human related creative motive were the third for 
Korea (12%), but only 1 percent of U.S. brand-mark used the motive. 
Overall difference of creative motives is statistically significant 
[?2(10)=27.98, p<0.01]. The frequently used colors are Blue and Red 
both in Korea and U.S. There is no statistical difference in usage of 
color (p>0.05). Over 70 percent of the brand-marks used only one 
color in designing the marks in Korea and U.S. The percent reaches 90 
percent if include brand-marks using two colors.
------------------------------
Table4 about here
------------------------------
	Multiple Discriminant Analysis was used to determine the linear 
combination of the independent variables that best classify cases 
into country groups. The independent variables are shape of 
brand-mark, and dependent variable is its country. Table 5 to 6 
illustrate the results of Multiple Discriminant Analysis showing 
unstandardized coefficients, standardized coefficients, Wilk' Lambda, 
and classification matrix.
------------------------------
Table5 about here
------------------------------
------------------------------
Table6 about here
------------------------------
The shape variable is found to be more important in discriminating 
the levels of the country in terms of standard coefficients, and also 
shape is more important in terms of Wilk's Lambda. F-ratio of each 
Wilk's Lambda is statistically significant (p<.05). The canonical 
correlation is .23, and Wilk's Lambda of the discriminant function is 
.95. It means that 95% of discriminant function variance is not 
explained by group differences. Chi-square of the Wilk's Lambda is 
8.94, and it is statistically significant (p<.05). Linear 
Discriminant Function Equation is D = -050 + 1.52 Shape -1.27 Value. 
It means that the U.S. tends to use more word oriented form in the 
brand-marks, and Korea has tendency to suggest more additional values 
in the expression of taglines. These results support the hypothesis 1 
and hypothesis 3. The average of discriminant function score for 
Korea is -.20, and for the U.S. is .28.
	As table6 illustrates, 61 cases of Korea were correctly classified, 
and 34 cases were not. In the U.S., 30 cases were correctly 
classified, and 40 cases were not. The hit rate was 61.2%. It is 
somewhat low proportion, but the hand calculated t-value of the hit 
rate was 2.02 thus the resultant hit rate was statistically significant.
DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION
This study explored the cultural differences of brand execution 
between Korea and the
U. S. The general finding indicates that Korean brands are more 
diffusive than those of the U.S. Diffusive aspects of Korean brand 
were found in both brand design and brand taglines. Given the 
specific versus diffuse dimension is correlated with power distance, 
individualism, and long term orientation (Hofstede, 1996), the 
results are consistent with previous researches using those variables 
in analysis of advertisements (Cho el al., 1999; Han & Shavitt, 1994).
Specifically, the results can be divided into two categories. First, 
in brand design, the Korean brand-marks used more abstract and 
symbolic creative designs than the U.S. This paper defined a word 
mark and a letter form as direct expression of creative design, and 
pictorial and symbolic as indirect expression. As Trompenaars wrote 
(1998), people in diffusive culture do not like the direct 
expression, and even considered it as an insult. This tendency also 
appeared in brand design analysis. Consistent with hypothesis, the 
Korean brand adopted more indirect design form like pictorial and 
abstract/symbolic forms. Given the fact that corporate identity (CI) 
is the face of the company, and frequently used in product placement 
or global sponsorship, this result could be adopted to the other 
marketing communication strategies, specially aimed to global market.
Second is found differences in brand-taglines. Korean brand-taglines 
suggest more additional values compared to the U.S. Although this 
paper failed to find significant differences of direct expression in 
Korean and the U.S. taglines, we found the significant differences of 
suggesting additional values in Korean brand-taglines. The failure to 
find the direct expression in taglines might be due to the fact that 
tagline normally does not contain enough information to analyze the 
differences. The results would be assumed to be different if the 
analyzed content was extended to advertising or other marketing 
communication messages containing more information.
This paper proposes that the cultural differences really exist in 
brand strategy between Korea and the U.S. The differences in 
advertising are broadly studied by various researchers, but the 
differences in brand itself are not studied until now. Normally brand 
taglines are embedded as core message in advertisement, so the 
studies of taglines are related to advertising studies, but the 
studies of brand design is totally new approach. Particularly, the 
importance of design elements constituting the brand can not be 
overestimated, because the first step of marketing communication 
starts from the brand itself and the brand logo lies in the center of 
that emphasis. In the field of marketing communications, both 
scholars and marketers are recommended to take interest in brand strategy.
This paper is an exploratory attempt to adapt Trompenaars' dimension 
to cultural differences in brand strategy. Therefore, some 
limitations are inevitably found. First, it is hard to differentiate 
the design elements into different categories. We used the categories 
whether the brand is word oriented or not. It is recommended to 
develop better scale to differentiate the design elements influencing 
creativeness. Second is the problem stemmed from the amount of 
information the tagline can have. The brand-tagline is worth studying 
because the taglines have the very core messages of specific company. 
The problem is that the brand-taglines do not contain enough 
information. In the practice of marketing communication, the core 
message has to be short to make it easy to deliver. That is why the 
tagline research is difficult.
Successive research is required to increase the validity of the 
findings of this paper. Other text must be analyzed like advertising 
message or different marketing communication messages to get validity 
of dimension from Trompenaars. Also, use of additional variables 
related brand design will increase the internal validity of the 
findings. It is also recommended to study the CI in the context of 
advertising such as the position of CI in advertisements, color 
variation of the CI, and the size of CI appeared in commercial. In 
the same regards, it is needed to research the adaptation of tagline 
to other marketing communication messages, and to study the 
relationship with advertising. Also we have to further study that the 
results would be projected to the individual product brand, called as 
BI (Brand Identity).




Table1: Cultural distance between Korean and U.S.
Cultural dimension
Korea
U.S.

Trompenaars et al. (%)
Universalism
Low(37)
High(93)
Individualism
Low(25)
High(69)
Emotional
Low*
High(43)
Specific
Low(41)
High(54)
Achieved
Low(20)
High(75)
Inner Direction
Med(72)
High(82)
Synchronous
High(5.28)
Low(4.3)
Rearranged based on Hofstede's culture and Organization, Trompenaars 
et al.'s Riding waves of culture, and Hall's Hidden Dimension
* Index or % not available

Table2: Brand Taglines for Korea and U.S.
Variables
Country
Mean
S.D.
N
t
Sig.
Additional Value
Korea
0.29
0.46
95
2.14
0.04
U.S.
0.16
0.37
70
Direct Speech
Korea
0.24
0.43
95
0.272
0.79
U.S.
0.26
0.44
69

Table3: Crosstabulation of Country by Shape of Brand-marks
Shape of Brand-Marks
Total
Word Mark
Letter Form
Pictorial
Symbolic
Korea
30
14
33
23
100
The U.S.
42
24
26
8
100
Total
72
38
59
31
200
?2=12.72, df=3, p<0.01
Table4: used colors
Main Color
Number of Color
Blue
Red
Yellow
Green
Grey
Black
1
2
More
Korean
45
35
6
8
3
3
71
21
8
U.S.
55
27
3
3
4
8
74
22
4
p>0.05

Table5: Results of Multiple Discriminant Analysis
Unstandardized
coefficient
Standardized
coeffcient
Wilk's Lambda
F-ratio
Mean of Korea
Mean of U.S.
Shape
1.52
.75
.96
6.70 (1, 163)
.44
.64
Value
-1.27
-.54
.97
4.29 (1, 163)
.29
.16
Constant
-.50
Canonical Correlation=.23, Wilk's Lambda=.95, Chi-square=8.94 (df=2), p<0.05

Table6: Classification Matrix
Country
Predicted Group Membership
Total
Korea
U.S.
Original
Korea
61
34
95
U.S.
30
40
70
61.2% of original grouped cases correctly classified
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