Content-Type: text/html
This paper was presented at the Association for Education in Journalism and
Mass Communication in Toronto, Canada, August 2004.
If you have questions about this paper, please contact the author
directly. If you have questions about the archives, email
[log in to unmask] For an explanation of the subject line, send email to
[log in to unmask] with just the four words, "get help info aejmc," in the
body (drop the "").
(Oct 2004)
Thank you.
Elliott Parker
************************************************************************
'Neither cold nor hot':
An Analysis of Christian World Wide Web Sites That Address GLBT Publics
Douglas J. Swanson, Ed.D, APR
University of Wisconsin, La Crosse
Swanson is an Assistant Professor in the UW-L Department of Communication
Studies
319 Center For The Arts
University of Wisconsin, La Crosse
La Crosse, WI 54601
(608) 785-6722
e-mail: [log in to unmask]
Running Head: Christian Web Sites/ GLBT Publics
'Neither cold nor hot':
An Analysis of Christian World Wide Web Sites That Address GLBT Publics
Running Head: Christian Web Sites/ GLBT Publics
Abstract
This research analyzes Christian Web sites addressing gay, lesbian,
bisexual, or transgendered publics. The study involved content analysis of
visual, operational, and informational enhancements and a frame analysis to
assess issues of intent, consistency, accuracy, and validity. Web sites
emphasized information dissemination rather than evangelization or
proselytization; were overwhelmingly framed as collections of linked
resources, rather than as online destinations for users seeking spiritual
comfort; were almost completely devoid of traditional Christian symbols,
scripture, and testimony; and failed to acknowledge in depth the complex
debate over same-sex relationships.
I know your deeds, that you are neither cold nor hot. I wish you were
either one or the other!
The Bible, Revelation 3:15 (NIV)
Introduction
The World Wide Web is a fairly new technological advancement, so it has
only been within the past few years that much scholarly research has
focused on its use. There still are many gaps in the literature. In
particular, there has not been a great deal of attention paid to the
subject of how religious organizations use the Web for information
dissemination, evangelization, and proselytization–three primary strategic
goals for a religious entity.
Within this subject area, the issue of how Christian groups use the Web to
address gay, lesbian, bisexual, and transgendered (GLBT) publics is
especially pertinent. There is intense debate within the Christian
community about whether GLBT worshipers should be accepted in the
church–and whether their interpersonal relationships should be affirmed
(Higgins, 2002; Maloney, 2001). Some Christian groups welcome GLBT
worshipers. Others do not, because they view homosexuality as unpardonable
sin. Both sides believe there is Biblical authority for their philosophical
position. Without a doubt, the acceptance and affirmation of gay, lesbian,
bisexual, and transgendered people in the Christian community is "the most
controversial issue facing the church today" (Davis, 2001, p. E1).
This study seeks to provide some understanding about one aspect of the
issue by examining World Wide Web sites operated by Christian organizations
that specifically address GLBT publics. A group of Web sites representing a
wide range of denominations was chosen for study. Sites were subjected to a
content analysis of visual, operational, and informational enhancements to
determine the presence or absence of these dimensions that, together,
significantly impact users' perceptions of Web site content, functionality,
and value (Swanson, 1999). As a result of content found, conclusions can be
made about intent, consistency, accuracy, and validity (Cutbirth, Shapiro &
Williams, 1983) of religious content as framed in the World Wide Web site.
The findings of this research should allow greater understanding of the
controversial issue of how Christian organizations address GLBT publics,
and how those worshipers are included in different Christian communities.
It should also allow Christian groups that actively seek out GLBT
worshipers to assess their online communication strategies and become more
effective in fulfilling the wants and needs of this population.
The Online Experience
In the past few years, there has been tremendous growth among consumers
who use the Web as an information resource. Between 2000 and 2002,
CommerceNet estimated a 40% increase in users worldwide–with 349 million
people now using the World Wide Web. One-third of those users are in the
U.S. (CommerceNet. . ., 2002).
While it is difficult to quantitatively estimate growth in online content,
researcher R. H. Zakon estimated that somewhere between 35 million and 40
million Web sites existed online in March, 2002. This represents a 100%
growth since March, 2000 (Zakon, 2002).
The establishment of a World Wide Web site is a technological endeavor
that transforms reality "for practical ends" (Christians, 2002, p. 38). The
hosting of a Web site allows people to indirectly define themselves as
individuals (Papacharissi, 2002) or as members of a group.
The Web site hosted on behalf of a Christian group is a distinct cultural
'reality' that can accomplish three key objectives. The first is
information dissemination. A Web site can present information to create an
inward sense of community, allowing those who share the same faith to
communicate about their experiences. The Web site can have an outward
evangelistic role, as well–as it can communicate persuasively with
followers and the general public about the group's theology and
organizational structure. Finally, the Web site can allow for
proselytization, through which the organization can identify and recruits
new followers.
The Web site can allow a Christian movement to be legitimized in a number
of ways. It can help build a dialogue with the public, solicit volunteers,
encourage study of the issues, and even raise money and sell merchandise to
further group objectives or work against the objectives of an opposed
religious theology or organization.
The Religious Experience
The need to believe in an ethereal being or God is "a part of our nature,
built into our neuronal mainframe" as human beings (Shermer, 2000, p. 47).
Human beings want to believe in a greater power, and, at the same time,
want to share this religious experience. This sharing allows humans to
integrate spirituality into their personal and professional lives
(Schneiders, 1989).
For most religious people, this shared experience takes place within the
organizational structure commonly referred to as the church. Within the
church, followers develop their spiritual beliefs in accordance with the
theology of the host denomination (Neck & Millman, 1994). Followers align
their values with the organization, to reflect "emotional investment" in
its structure (Dehler & Welsh, 1994, p. 22). Followers submit to and
participate in "relationship- based organizing" (Sass, 2000, p. 201) which
connects participants, their values, and activities in socially meaningful
and supportive ways. The result is a religious organization that can
interpret the world and its relationships for followers and the general
public (Appelrouth, 1999).
At the same time, the organization creates a religious identity for
itself. In the U.S., Caplovitz observes that this identity rests on two
foundations–"a commitment to religious beliefs and practices and a feeling
of kinship with a social group united by a common religious tie"
(Caplovitz, 1977, p. 181).
In recent years, Christian churches have faced a number of troubling
issues. Beginning in the early 1980s, a progression of moral scandals
caused many Americans to lose faith in religious denominations and those
who led them (Gamson, 2001; Lord, 1987). These scandals involved financial
misappropriation (Fraser, 1999; Barr, 1988), sexual misconduct by
leadership (Gamson, 2001), the public expression of impolite comment by
leadership (Goodman, 2001), and accusations of intellectual dishonesty
(Swaggart accused of. . ., 2001). A world-wide scandal even left the
once-sacrosanct Catholic Church to be widely perceived as manipulative and
corrupt to its very core (Collins, 2002).
Public support for religious denominations has been shown to drop
dramatically in the wake of scandal (Fan, Wyatt, & Keltner, 2001). It has
also been suggested that in recent years, at least partially in response to
scandal, an increasingly cynical public has been shying away from some
denominations and churches based on the perception that they "cause more
problems than they solve" (Barron, 1993, p. A1). Worshipers who happen to
be Christian and gay find themselves in a particularly difficult situation.
They face widespread negative public stereotyping at the community level
(Yang, 1997; Stipp & Kerr, 1989). They also can find themselves unwanted in
church because they're gay (Tubbs, 2001) and are "shut out by the gay
movement" because they're Christian (How fundamentalists. . ., 2002, p.
D8). Some of the most prejudicial attitudes toward gay Christians are
expressed within the GLBT community itself (Maynard & Gorsuch, 2001).
It could be argued that the recent social and cultural climate is quite
favorable to the development of religious organizations that address
specific concerns common to GLBT publics. A gay-friendly Christian church
would offer these worshipers comfort and support that they may not find
within mainstream denominations, churches, and theologies.
Christianity, GLBT Issues, and Apostasy
An apostate is a person who at one time identified with a particular
religious denomination, but for one or more reasons subsequently severed
his or her relationship. The apostasy process begins with "individuals
experiencing doubts about the viability of religious life and their own
commitment to that life" (Bromley, 1988, p. 15). The highest level of
apostasy is that of personal "disengagement" (p. 16) from the religious
denomination. Apostasy involves more than church membership. "Apostasy
implies a rejection, not just of religious identity, but, in part, of the
dominant culture's values" (Bromley, 1988, p. 30).
It is not unusual for those who become apostates to experience great
personal and emotional suffering. Apostates often break from the
established group during times of rapid social change that are already
difficult for people to deal with (Wright, 1988). They are commonly
rejected by family members and friends (Lobdell, 2001) and in some
situations are accused of having psychological problems (Witham, 1998).
The media add to the difficulty of the situation by commonly categorizing
apostate groups among sects and cults in a way that can make them be
perceived as deviant (Witham, 1998). Witham says this editorial treatment
results from news media logic that seeks to draw attention to unusual
behavior that results in social conflict. It also results from input by
family and friends of religious group members who pressure media to expose
alleged wrongdoing by dissenters. The process is exacerbated by mainstream
religious groups that "add the aura of established religious authority to
criticism of small groups" (1998, p.3).
While apostasy is not a direct concern of this research, it is a related
issue. Certainly some Christian denominations hold the theological
viewpoint that homosexual behavior is sinful. A Christian group that claims
to be housed within such a denomination–but at the same time uses its Web
site to communicate affirmation of same-sex relationships–would technically
be engaged in apostasy. This concern, and similar moral and ethical
questions raised by Web sites studied, will be dealt with through
exploration of issues of Web site intent, consistency, accuracy, and validity.
Research Design
This research required an objective means of determining the level of Web
site enhancements perceived by site users. The content analysis method was
chosen because it allows for measurement of communication content in a
manner that is "objective, and quantitative" (Wimmer & Dominick, 1994, p.
164). Content analysis is widely favored among researchers investigating
electronic or published media content because it allows for a "systematic
examination of materials that are more typically evaluated on an
impressionistic basis"–such as Web sites (See Babbie, 1990, p. 30).
An additional method of analysis was needed to allow for broader
qualitative generalizations to be made about Web site content. The method
chosen was frame analysis–a strategy whereby the investigator proceeds to
"select some aspects of a perceived reality and make them more salient in a
communicative text" in order to define and interpret communication content
(Entman, 1993, p. 52).
A frame serves as a means for organizing information that allows members
of publics to adopt particular beliefs. A frame can organize key words,
phrases, or themes (Scherer, 2002); audio/ visual messages (Hung, 2001);
graphic images such as photos or cartoons (Ragan, 1979); or sources from
which information originates or to whom it is attributed (Entman, 1983).
Frames can be used to describe or characterize the communicative
relationships that take place as a result of gender (Devitt, 2002) or
ethnicity (Moody-Hall, 2002) or any of numerous other explicit or implicit
variables (Hung, 2001) that result in- and result from- communication.
In this research, frame analysis was used as an organizing device to make
conclusions based on what was found in the content analysis. Specifically,
it was used to assess issues of intent, consistency, accuracy, and validity
(See Cutbirth, Shapiro, & Williams, 1983) as found in the Web site. It
allowed the researcher to isolate issues that Web sites portrayed as
salient for public discussion from those that were not (See Tankard, 1997)
and allowed an overall characterization of how Christian Web sites
addressing GLBT worshipers select and emphasize "certain aspects of
experience or ideas over others" (See Andsager & Smiley, 1997. p.
2). Research Questions
Four research questions were posed in regard to Christian groups' use of
World Wide Web sites to address GLBT publics:
RQ 1: What types of visual, operational, and informational enhancements
are commonly used to address GLBT publics?
RQ2 What quantitative differences exist among sites in regard to the use of
visual, operational, and informational enhancements to address GLBT publics?
RQ3: What similarities and differences in regard to perceived intent,
consistency, accuracy, and validity of content can be identified among
World Wide Web sites addressing GLBT publics?
Methodology
An extensive search was made on the World Wide Web to identify Web sites
for study. The author sought to identify religious organizations that
demonstrated a national base of support–rather than those whose support was
isolated in a particular community, or directed toward a localized GLBT public.
Although the Web-based search for qualified organizations was not random
it was exhaustive. This search began with inquiries via Yahoo and Google to
identify Christian organizations that communicated specifically that they
were reaching out to gay, lesbian, bisexual, or transgendered publics. From
an initial sample of more than 100 organizations, the researcher identified
12 Christian groups, all of which identified a national base of support.
The groups represented a variety of different religious denominations
across the wide theological spectrum of Christian worship. Subject Web site
names, group names (if different), URL addresses, and statements of purpose
as found on Web sites are shown in Figure 1.
Existing content analysis designs located by the author were insufficient
to fully extrapolate the visual, operational, and informational elements of
these Web sites. Therefore, the author created a content analysis
instrument and procedure similar to that used in previous studies of Web
sites (See Swanson, 1999 and Mitchell, 1996).
The content analysis procedure identified presence or absence of 12 types
of visual enhancements, 20 types of operational enhancements and 17
categories of information which are commonly found on religious Web sites.
Sites were scored to receive one point for each enhancement type present,
regardless of the number of instances of the enhancement which were
evident. No points were given for enhancement types not present. The
enhancement categories measured are shown in Figures 2, 3, and 4.
The final procedure carried out was a frame analysis. The frame analysis
served to identify the intent, consistency, accuracy, and validity of each
site based on its claims and in comparison with the enhancements offered
(See Cutbirth, Shapiro, & Williams, 1983).
Because the Web is a constantly changing medium, it was important to
conduct the content analysis procedure in a way that would come as close as
possible to obtaining a 'snapshot' of all the sites' content at a single
point in time. All analysis of site content was conducted by the author
during a six hour time frame on a single day–January 31, 2003. Each site
was viewed once, for 30 minutes. Access was accomplished on an IBM Thinkpad
PC using Internet Explorer 6.0 on a local area connection at 100.0 Mbps.
A content analysis form for each accessed site was completed manually as
each site was accessed and analyzed. All sites were accessible without
delay on first attempt.
Results
Web sites were electronically accessed and scored individually. Presence
or absence of visual, operational, and informational enhancements was
recorded by category, both individually and collectively. Qualitative
observations were made, and written comments recorded, in regard to content
and context of observed enhancements.
RQ 1: What types of visual, operational, and informational enhancements
are commonly used to address GLBT publics?
Visual enhancements
The most common visual enhancements found on Web sites were lines/ borders
(12 sites, or 100%), graphic icons such as bullets and pointers (10 sites,
or 83%) and frames and static photographs (each used on 9 sites, or 75%).
Use of still photos (9 sites, or 75%) and illustrations (8 sites, or 67%)
also were common. Half of the sites (6, or 50%) made use of a specific
denominational symbol, such as the Methodist 'flaming cross' or the
Jehovah's Witness 'Watchtower.'
None of the sites was found to include live audio/ video or a Web camera,
even though these visual elements are commonly used on the World Wide Web.
None of the sites was found to use recorded video, and only one site used
recorded audio clips to address the faithful. The most surprising
discovery was the almost total absence of generic Christian symbols.
Although the Christian cross would be the most universally-recognized
symbol of the Christian faith, the cross was not found on any of the 12
sites analyzed. The only generic Christian icon identified on any site was
the icthus, or fish, used on the Lutherans Concerned site.
Operational enhancements
The most common operational enhancements found on Web sites were links to
e-mail (12 sites, or 100%), links to organizational sub-groups (11 sites,
or 92%), and links to similarly-aligned religious groups (10 sites, or
83%). Other commonly-used operational enhancements included downloadable
files, and links to assist the user to be included on the group's mailing
list (each used on 9 sites, or 75%).
Only four sites (33%) were found to offer navigational assistance to
users. Only two sites (17%) were found to indicate a date of last revision,
and one of these two indicated its last revision was in 1997.
Informational enhancements
The most common informational enhancements found on Web sites were the
group's postal address and telephone contact information, tracts/
interpretive scriptural texts, organizational news, and 'frequently asked
questions' items. Each of these were found on 11 sites, or 92%. Other
commonly-found informational enhancements included a doctrinal statement
(10 sites, or 83%), organizational goals statement (9 sites, or 75%), and
activity/ social calendar (9 sites, or 75%).
Only 5 sites were found to contain direct testimony from believers (42%),
and even fewer sites were found to offer personal life profiles of
followers (3 sites, or 25%). Religious sermons were found at only one site.
None of the sites was found to offer a religious year calendar, and none
was found to have an organizational chart showing the structure of the
sponsoring religious group. While quotes from scripture were commonly found
on Web sites, none of the 12 sites was found to contain a full text version
of the Bible.
RQ2 What quantitative differences exist among sites in regard to the use of
visual, operational, and informational enhancements to address GLBT publics?
Individual site visual enhancement scores ranged from a low of 2 to a high
of 8. The group mean was 5.58. The standard deviation was 1.97.
Individual site operational enhancement scores ranged from a low of 4 to a
high of 17. The group mean was 9.29. The standard deviation was 3.84.
Individual site informational enhancement scores ranged from a low of 1 to
a high of 11. The group mean was 8.25. The standard deviation was 3.19.
The sum of individual site visual, operational, and informational
enhancements ranged from a low of 7 to a high of 34. The group mean was
23.75. The standard deviation was 8.05.
Figures 2, 3, and 4 show the enhancements observed during content
analysis, and the frequency with which those enhancements were found
displayed within the subject sites analyzed.
RQ3: What similarities and differences in regard to perceived intent,
consistency, accuracy, and validity of content can be identified among
World Wide Web sites addressing GLBT publics? Intent
Most of the 12 Web sites addressing GLBT publics were perceived to frame
their content in the context of information dissemination, rather than
evangelization or proselytization. This was evidenced by the fact that
visual enhancements that would symbolically support evangelization or
proselytization were seldom used (e.g., specific denominational icons or
logos) or not used at all (e.g., the generic Christian cross).
Operational enhancements that would facilitate evangelization and
proselytization would include any functional tool that would expedite the
process through which the site visitor could join the group. Items of this
type would include 'Refer a Friend' links and multi-lingual text. These
items were not found in use on the vast majority of sites. Even the use of
an access counter would quantitatively communicate to site visitors great
interest by others in a particular group's religious message–but only one
of the sites was found to have an access counter visible.
Informational enhancements that would offer primary persuasive support for
evangelization and proselytization (e.g.,, testimonies, full-text
scripture, sermons, leader profiles, and follower profiles) also were found
to be used infrequently among all sites. Site informational enhancements
most often used (e.g., news, interpretive texts, frequently asked
questions) tend to be explanatory rather than persuasive.
Consistency
The 12 Web sites addressing GLBT publics were, as a group, consistent in
that each was perceived to be framed as a collection of linked resources,
rather than as an online 'destination' for users seeking spiritual comfort.
This was evidenced in a number of ways.
Visual elements that would potentially provide comfort or enlightenment to
a spiritual seeker would include photos and illustrations–particularly of
other like-minded people receiving comfort, use of religious icons or logos
to facilitate a strong sense of identification with the organization, and
live or recorded downloadable audio/ video messages. Yet these were the
visual enhancements most infrequently found–or not found at all–on the Web
sites analyzed.
As a whole, operational enhancements were by far the most frequently found
enhancements on Web sites. Eleven of the 20 categories of operational
enhancements were found on at least half of the sites analyzed, and only
one of the 20–the people search tool–was not found on any site. Although
the research design did not allow for counting numbers of enhancements used
on sites, each of the 12 sites had numerous operational links. On some
sites, individual subordinate pages consisted of dozens of hyperlinks to
resources both on-site and elsewhere on the World Wide Web.
As a whole, the level of informational enhancements among sites was second
only to the level of operational enhancements. Nine of the 17 categories of
informational enhancements were found on at least half of the sites
analyzed, and only three of the 17 categories were not found on any site.
While it is difficult to objectively measure the theological or
philosophical consistency of informational content on individual sites, as
a group the sites analyzed were perceived to be fairly consistent in that
their content was seen as providing information only and not supporting
evangelization and/or proselytization. This is evidenced by the fact that
no site contained a full-text version of the Bible or a religious year
calendar, only one site was found to contain sermons, and few sites made
use of testimonies and personal profiles. Accuracy
As is the case with informational consistency, it is difficult to
objectively measure 'accuracy' in regard to content of World Wide Web
sites. We can, however, examine whether enhancements on Web sites function
in accordance with common user expectations (Forsythe, Grose, & Ratner, 1998).
Almost all of the 12 Web sites evaluated in this research had visual
elements that were consistent with common expectations of users. Each of
the sites had an identifiable visual theme–although there was a wide range
of colors, type styles, and organizational structures employed. Several of
the sites employed especially vibrant color schemes that were consistent
throughout the opening page and subordinate pages.
Only one site was perceived to be visually problematic. The Jehovah's
Witness A Common Bond site used a dark, undulating multi-colored background
on which was superimposed paragraphs of text that varied in color
throughout the site. The researcher found the site to be awkwardly
organized, with text that was difficult to read and even more difficult to
navigate; links could not be clearly identified due to the constantly
changing color of the body text.
Operational accuracy was determined by whether graphic elements appeared
on site as they were intended to. Operational accuracy was also determined
by whether hyperlinks worked as designed, and linked to the item(s) they
were supposed to.
All graphic elements found on sites appeared normally and seemed to
function as they were intended. None seemed optically disproportionate.
None seemed contextually out of place. Due to the huge number of
hyperlinks on sites and the limited time available for examination of each
site, hyperlinks were verified randomly as needed to identify presence or
absence of specific enhancement categories.
Although the problem of inoperable or 'dead' hyperlinks has been noted in
past research (Swanson, 1999), only two of the 12 sites analyzed in this
study were found to have inoperable links. One of these sites had one
inoperable link to an information content area of minimal significance.
Another site, the AXIOS Eastern and Orthodox Gay and Lesbian Christian
site, had numerous inoperable links. One was supposed to connect with 'On
Being Orthodox and Gay'–something that clearly would be a main
informational item of concern for any site visitor. Most of the AXIOS
inoperable hyperlinks appeared to connect with information stored off-site.
Given that the AXIOS site listed its date of last revision as 1997, it is
perhaps not surprising that these links to off-site elements were no longer
functioning.
As a whole, site informational content was perceived to be 'accurate' in
that no copy errors were noted (e.g., spelling, grammar, punctuation,
syntax). Aside from the exceptions noted above, no sites were found to
contain any enhancements that would be inconsistent with typically-accepted
practice on the World Wide Web (See Whitaker, 1998; Aikat, 1997).
Validity
Logical validity is a relationship between a premise and a conclusion such
that if the premise is true, then the conclusion is true. The analysis of
Web sites identified no large-scale problem issues with visual,
operational, or informational enhancement validity. Site enhancements
deliver rewards to users that are consistent with the contextual frame in
which sites operate. As a whole, these sites were perceived to be primarily
informational resource sites that provide basic information about religious
groups and connect users to other, related resources. The visual,
operational, and informational content was perceived to be consistent with
that outcome. Sites were framed to be more social than spiritual, more
focused on news about movements than on content about doctrine–and, above
all, unquestionably accepting of a wide spectrum of personal behavioral
choices.
None of the sites was found to criticize GLBT individuals, their
attitudes, or the wide range of behaviors related to same-sex attraction.
None of the sites was found to contain any kind of statement condemning
sexual promiscuity, although several sites made statements in support of
"committed relationships" between partners.
Conclusion
This research demonstrates that these World Wide Web sites operated by
Christian groups seeking to engage in a dialogue with members of publics
who identify themselves as gay, lesbian, bisexual, or transgendered can be
characterized as 'neither cold nor hot.' The sites' content was
informational, not persuasive. Content was overwhelmingly social, not
spiritual. The sites were perceived to be established primarily as
collections of linked resources rather than electronic "interpretive
communities" (See Beck, 1995) that would allow members of the groups to
interact with visitors in a way that would allow site content to enliven
and enhance discussion and debate.
Throughout all these sites the researcher found no substantive
debate–individually or collectively–of the range of issues related to
same-sex attraction argued vigorously in the general community of Christian
believers. While the sites did acknowledge that individual GLBT Christians
might find others in disagreement with their same-sex desires, the sites
did not acknowledge in any substantial way the range of accompanying
theological, doctrinal, social, cultural, medical, legal, or economic concerns.
If we accept Andsager and Smiley's premise that framing of communication
can emphasize "certain aspects of experience or ideas over others" (See
Andsager & Smiley, 1997. p. 2) it becomes clear that the Web sites analyzed
for this study emphasized informative communicative content delivered in a
fairly analytical way with the apparent primary goal of connecting GLBT
users with GLBT-friendly resources. Sites de-emphasized communicative
content that would be perceived as evangelistic or proselytizational,
overtly spiritual, or would trigger a wider debate of theological or
denominational issues.
Most of these sites represent Christian groups that identify with–but are
not organizationally aligned with–a particular Christian denomination that
does not recognize the Biblical acceptability of same-sex relationships. In
that sense, then, most of the 12 sites represent apostate groups. Because
apostasy "implies a rejection, not just of religious identity, but, in
part, of the dominant culture's values" (Bromley, 1988, p. 30) it would be
relevant for these sites to discuss the issue of apostasy itself, and its
impact on group members and visitors. Discussion of apostasy would help
sites to unite behind a common purpose and build a sense of community that
is critical to retention of the faithful (Caplovitz, 1977). However, none
of these sites was found to take advantage of this opportunity.
This study has hinted at a number of research areas which merit further
investigation. It is important to remember that this research was
preliminary and limited to a very small number of sites chosen in a
non-random manner. The uniformity of the findings was somewhat surprising,
however. Therefore, it would be helpful for there to be an effort to more
comprehensively evaluate Christian sites that address GLBT worshipers. It
would also be beneficial to track these sites over time, to see on a
continuing basis how the content, functionality, and value of these sites
changes as a consequence of changes in site enhancements. A Web site could
potentially be altered on a daily basis, and one of the subject sites in
this research was altered extensively less than two weeks after the content
analysis was completed. Existing literature offers no understanding of the
extent to which site enhancements may be changed over time to address
different user wants and needs. This is a subject area that warrants attention.
There should be additional research work to compare the visual,
operational, and informational enhancements of Christian sites addressing
GLBT publics with Christian sites that address non-GLBT worshipers. Surely
some interesting comparisons and contrasts could be found.
Beyond that, we must attempt to quantify why Christian Web site creators
may the choices they do when developing enhancements and framing related
issues. We should attempt to uncover the specific social, organizational,
administrative, procedural, theological, or doctrinal variables that affect
the decision-making process.
All these issues are important in a general sense, in that the
investigation of them will help us better explain our world and the people
living and worshiping within it. But the issues are critical to the future
survival of the modern Christian church, which has been threatened in many
ways in the recent past and needs to create a more effective online
presence in order to make the connections necessary with the worshipers of
the future. References
Aikat, D. (1997, August). Organizations in Cyberspace: An informational
content analysis of
academic, government, and commercial World Wide Web pages on the Internet.
Paper
delivered to the Communication Technology and Policy Division, Association for
Education in Journalism and Mass Communication, Chicago, IL.
Andsager, J., & Smiley, L. (1997). Evaluating the public information
function: How media
agents framed the silicon breast implant controversy. Paper presented to
the annual
meeting of the Association for Education in Journalism and Mass Communication,
Baltimore, MD, July 30-August 2.
Appelrouth, S. A. (1999). Shifting frames and rhetorics: A case study of
the Christian Coalition
of New York. Social Science Journal, 36:2, 329-341.
Babbie, E. R. (1990). Survey research methods (2nd ed.) Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.
Beck, Christina S. (1995). You make the call: The co-creation of media text
through interaction
in an interpretive community of 'Giants fans.' Electronic Journal of
Communication, 5(1)
(not paginated).
Barr, R. (1988, Feb. 23). Religious scandal extends 'credibility crisis.'
Fort Lauderdale Sun-
Sentinel, p. 3A.
Barron, A. (1993, July 4). Church flocks thinning family, cultural changes
cited. Greensboro
News-Record, p. A1. Bromley, D. G. (1988). Religious disaffiliation: A
neglected social process. In D. G. Bromley
(Ed.) Falling from the faith: Causes and consequences of religious
apostasy, pp. 9-25.
Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
Caplovitz, D. (1977). The religious drop-outs. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.
Christians, C. G. (2002). Religious perspectives on communication
technology. Journal of Media
and Religion, 1(1), 37-47.
Collins, D. A. (2002, August 11). The church's power play. The Washington
Post, p. B06.
CommerceNet WorldWide Internet Population (2002). Retrieved November 26,
2002 from
www.commerce.net/research/statistics.
Cutbirth, C. W., Shapiro, M. E., & Williams, W. (1983). The ethics of media
framing of issues of
the 1980 presidential campaign. Paper presented at the annual meeting of
the International
Communication Association, Dallas, TX, May 26-30. (ERIC document ED 233 412)
Davis, D. (2001, April 1). A test of faith. The Santa Fe New Mexican, p. E1.
Dehler, G. E., & Welsh, M. A. (1994). Spirituality and organizational
transformation: Implications for the new management paradigm. Journal of
Managerial Psychology, 9(6), 17-26.
Devitt, J. (2002). Framing gender on the campaign trail: Female
gubernatorial candidates and the
press. Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly, 79, 445-463. Entman, R.
M. (1983). Framing: Toward clarification of a fractured paradigm. Journal of
Communication, 43, 51-58.
Fan, D. P., Wyatt, R. O., and Keltner, K. (2001). The suicidal messenger:
How press reporting affects public confidence in the press, the military,
and organized religion. Communication Research, 28(6), 826-852.
Forsythe, C., Grose, E., & Ratner, J. (Eds.), (1998). Human factors and Web
development.
Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Fraser, C. (1999). God's perfect child: Living and dying in the Christian
Science Church.
New York: Metropolitan Books.
Gamson, J. (2001). Jessica Hahn, media whore: Sex scandals and female
publicity. Critical
Studies in Media Communication. 18(2), 157-173.
Higgins, R. (2002). Tied in knots. Christian Century, 119(8), 8-9.
How fundamentalists, gays sit at same 'family' table: Arthur Dong explores
conflicts in latest
documentary. (2002, Oct. 9). San Francisco Chronicle, p. D8.
Hung, K. (2001). Framing meaning perceptions with music: The case of teaser
ads. Journal of
Advertising, 30(3), 39-49.
Lobdell, W. (2001, Dec. 1). Losing faith and lots more. Los Angeles Times,
p. A1.
Lord, L. J. (1987, April 6). An unholy war in the TV pulpits. U.S. News &
World Report,
pp. 58-65.
Mahoney, D.M. (2001, Oct. 1). God and gays: As the church debate swirls,
some congregations
open their arms. Columbus (OH) Dispatch, p. 1C.
Maynard, E. A., & Gorsuch, R. L. (2001). Prejudice or preference? Attitudes
of gay and lesbian
Christians. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American
Psychological
Association, San Francisco, CA, August 24-28.
Mitchell, B. K. (1996). Cyberspace: Its impact on the public relations
functions of state
departments of transportation. Unpublished Master's thesis, Oklahoma State
University,
Stillwater, OK.Moody-Hall, M. (2002). British v. U.S. newspaper framing of
arabs in coverage of the Middle-
Eastern conflict. Paper presented to the annual convention of the
Association for
Education in Journalism and Mass Communication, Miami Beach, FL, Aug. 7-10.
Neck, C. P., & Millman, J. F. (1994). Thought self-leadership: Finding
spiritual fulfillment in
organizational life. Journal of Managerial Psychology, 9(6), 9-16.
Papacharissi, Z. (2002). The presentation of self in virtual life:
Characteristics of personal home
pages. Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly, 79(3), 643-660.
Ragan, S. (1979). A frame analysis of New Yorker cartoons. Paper presented
at the annual
meeting of the Speech Communication Association, San Antonio, TX., Nov. 10-13.
(ERIC document ED 178 991)
Sass, J. S. (2000). Characterizing organizational spirituality: An
organizational communication
culture approach. Communication Studies, 51(3), 195-217.
Scherer, M. (2002, March/ April). In review: Framing the flag. Columbia
Journalism Review,
p. 10.
Schneiders, S. M. (1989). Spirituality in the academy. Theological Studies,
50, 676-697.
Shermer, M. (2000). How we believe: The search for God in America. New
York: W. H.
Freeman & Co.
Stipp, H. & Kerr, D. (1989). Determinants of public opinion about AIDS.
Public Opinion
Quarterly, 53(1, Spring), 98-106.
Swaggart accused of plagiarism (2001, August 30). The Chattnooga Times, p. A2.
Swanson, D. J. (2001). Standing porter at the door of thought': The social
order of Christian
Science. Paper presented at the annual conference of the Western Social
Science
Association, Reno, NV, April 18, 2001.
Swanson, D. J. (1999). World Wide Web sites and social order within higher
education
journalism and mass communication programs. Unpublished doctoral dissertation.
Stillwater, OK: Oklahoma State University. Tankard, J. W. (1997). PR goes
to war: The effects of public relations campaigns on media
framing of the Kuwaiti and Bosnian crises. Paper presented to the annual
meeting of the
Association for Education in Journalism and Mass Communication, Baltimore,
MD, July
30-August 2.
Tubbs, S. (2001, July 22). A battle for blessings. St. Petersberg (FL)
Times, p. 1F.
Whitaker, L. A. (1998). Human navigation. In C. Forsythe, E. Grose, & J.
Ratner (Eds.),
Human factors and Web development (pp. 63-71). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence
Erlbaum Associates.
Wimmer, R. D., & Dominick, J. R. (1994). Mass media research: An
introduction (4th ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.
Witham, L. (1998). Manipulating the media against small religions. Speech
delivered at the
International Coalition for Religious Freedom Conference, Washington, DC,
April 17-19,
1998. Retrieved September 20, 2002 from
www.religiousfreedom.com/Conference/DC/witham.htm.
Wright, S. A. (1988). Leaving new religious movements: Issues, theory,
and research. In D. G.
Bromley (Ed.) Falling from the faith: Causes and consequences of
religious apostasy, pp.
143-204. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
Yang, A. S. (1997). The polls-trends: Attitudes toward homosexuality.
Public Opinion
Quarterly, 61(3, Fall), 477-507.
Zakon, R. H. (2002). Hobbes' Internet timeline v.5.6. Retrieved November
26, 2002 from
www.zakon.org.
Figure 1
Subject Web site names, Christian group names (if identified as different),
URL addresses, and statements of purpose as found on Web sites
(n = 12)
Affirmation
(Gay & Lesbian Mormons)
http://www.affirmation.org/
"...Affirmation is a fellowship of gays, lesbians, bisexuals, their family
and friends who share the common bond of the Mormon experience. Its purpose
is to provide a supportive environment for relieving the needless fear,
guilt, self-oppression and isolation that LDS gays and lesbians can
experience in an era where willful ignorance about human sexuality is too
often a reality..."
Affirmation
(United Methodists for Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual & Transgendered Concerns)
http://www.umaffirm.org/
"...Affirmation is an activist caucus of lesbian, gay, bisexual and
transgendered people, and our family and friends, organized to speak for
ourselves..."
The Coalition
(The United Church of Christ Coalition for Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, and
Transgender Concerns)
http://www.ucccoalition.org/
"...provides support and sanctuary to all our lesbian, gay, bisexual and
transgender sisters and brothers, their families and friends..."
A Common Bond
(Jehovah's Witnesses)
http://www.gayxjw.org/
"...the worldwide support network for gay, lesbian, bisexual and
transgendered individuals who are active, inactive, disassociated, and
disfellowshipped Jehovah's Witnesses..."
Dignity USA
(Gay, Lesbian, Bisexual and Transgender Catholics)
http://www.dignityusa.org/
"...the largest and most progressive national lay movement of lesbian, gay,
bisexual and transgender (GLBT) Catholics, our families, and our friends..."
Axios
(Eastern and Orthodox Gay and Lesbian Christians)
http://www.axios.net
"...an organization of Eastern & Near Eastern Orthodox, Byzantine &
Eastern-rite Catholic Gay & Lesbian lay Christians..."
Emergence International
(Christian Science)
http://www.emergence-international.org/
"...a world-wide community of Christian Scientists, their families and
friends, that provides spiritual and educational support for lesbians, gay
men, and bisexual and transgendered people, as they deal with homophobia
and hetrosexism..."
Lutherans Concerned/ North America
http://www.lcna.org/
"...Lutherans Concerned/North America stands as a community of faith,
modeling the gospel with the church and within the gay, lesbian, bisexual,
and transgendered communities. We seek to employ the Gospel's principles of
inclusiveness and justice, celebrating God's gifts of sexuality and
diversity..."
Metropolitan Community Churches
http://www.ufmcc.com/
"...a worldwide fellowship of Christian churches with a special outreach to
the world's gay, lesbian, bisexual and transgender communities..."
More Light Presbyterians
http://www.mlp.org/
"...seeking the full participation of lesbian, gay, bisexual and
transgender people of faith in the life, ministry and witness of the
Presbyterian Church (USA)..."
Rainbow Baptists
(American Baptists Concerned)
http://www.rainbowbaptists.org/
"...a website providing support, information and advocacy for gay, lesbian,
bisexual and transgender Baptists, their family and friends..."
Seventh-day Adventist Kinship International, Inc.
http://www.sdakinship.org/
"...Seventh-day Adventist Kinship International is a support organization
devoted to the spiritual, emotional, social and physical well-being of
current and former Seventh-day Adventists who are lesbian, gay, bisexual or
transgendered (LGBT)..."
Figure 2
Web site visual enhancement categories
and the frequency with which enhancements were found
( n = 12 subject sites)
Visual Enhancements
Lines/ borders
12 sites (100%)
Graphic icons
10 sites (83%)
Frames
9 sites (75%)
Static photo
9 sites (75%)
Static illustration
8 sites (67%)
Animated graphic
6 sites (50%)
Denominational icon or logo
6 sites (50%)
Visual alert notice
5 sites (42%)
Video or audio clip
1 site (8%)
Generic Christian icon or logo
1 site (8%)
Web camera
0
Live video or audio feed
0
Figure 3
Web site operational enhancement categories
and the frequency with which enhancements were found
( n = 12 subject sites)
Operational Enhancements
Link to e-mail
12 sites (100%)
Link to organizational sub-groups
11 sites (92%)
Link to similarly-aligned Christian groups
10 sites (83%)
Downloadable files
9 sites (75%)
"Join us" mailing list or area
9 sites (75%)
"Discussion group" link or area
8 sites (67%)
"Make a donation" link or area
8 sites (67%)
Link to supportive political organization
8 sites (67%)
Link to supportive media, internal
8 sites (67%)
Term search tool, within site
6 sites (50%)
"Guest book" link or area
6 sites (50%)
Link to supportive media, external
5 sites (42%)
Multi-lingual text
5 sites (42%)
Navigational aides within site
4 sites (33%)
Link to financial supporter/ underwriter
3 sites (25%)
"Make a purchase" link or area
2 sites (17%)
"Refer a friend" link or area
2 sites (17%)
Date of last revision noted
2 sites (17%)
Access counter
1 site (8%)
People search tool, within site
0
Figure 4
Web site informational enhancement categories
and the frequency with which enhancements were found
( n = 12 subject sites)
Informational Enhancements
Postal address and phone
11 sites (92%)
Tracts/ interpretive texts
11 sites (92%)
Organizational news
11 sites (92%)
FAQ
11 sites (92%)
Doctrinal statement
10 sites (83%)
Organizational goals statement
9 sites (75%)
Activity/ social calendar
9 sites (75%)
Organizational chronology/ timeline
7 sites (58%)
Point/ counterpoint discussion
6 sites (50%)
Testimonials
5 sites (42%)
Profiles of followers (not testimony)
3 sites (25%)
Facilities or program descriptions
3 sites (25%)
Leader profiles (not testimony)
2 sites (17%)
Sermon(s)
1 site (8%)
Bible (full text)
0
Religious year calendar/ holy days listing
0
Organizational chart
0