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Running with Ritalin:
Magazine Portrayals of Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder
By
Tiffany S. Johnson
Department of Communication Studies
Clemson University
412 Strode Tower
Clemson, SC 29634
(864) 656-6392
[log in to unmask]
And
Bryan E. Denham*
Assistant Professor
Department of Communication Studies
Clemson University
412 Strode Tower
Clemson, SC 29634
(864) 656-6392
[log in to unmask]
A paper submitted to the Media and Disability Interest Group
for presentation at the 2003 National Conference of the Association
for Education in Journalism and Mass Communication
Kansas City, MO
*Please direct all correspondence regarding this manuscript to the second
author.
Running with Ritalin:
Magazine Portrayals of Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder
Abstract
This study examines how Time, Newsweek, and U.S. News and World Report
have portrayed attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Magazine text was
content analyzed for article length, description of the symptoms of
attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder, sources quoted in the text,
treatment methods suggested, and content conceivably leading to a biased
understanding of the disorder. The study finds that news magazine coverage
has increased dramatically over the past 14 years, with medicinal
treatments such as Ritalin most commonly suggested. Rarely mentioned have
been the side effects of medicinal treatment and alternative treatment methods.
Running with Ritalin:
Magazine Portrayals of Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder
Since its addition to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental
Disorders (DSM-III) in 1980, attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder
(ADHD) has been somewhat controversial (for example, Robison, et al.,
1999). Proponents of its official recognition argue that it has allowed
millions of children the opportunity to receive help in correcting a
problem that was previously thought to be laziness or irresponsibility.
Critics, on the other hand, suggest that ADHD is simply psychologists' way
of attaching a label to the normal characteristics of childhood. Still
others argue that ADHD is a true psychological disorder, yet it is being
over-diagnosed because medicating a child is easier than attempting to use
conventional techniques that require large amounts of effort. Indeed,
as the New York Times reported in January, 2003, scholars recently found
that the number of children taking psychiatric drugs more than doubled from
1987 to 1996. As Goode (2003) wrote in the Times report, the numbers
demonstrate quite clearly an increasing reliance on medicines as the
"treatment of choice."
In the past 15 years, then, there has been great deliberation, especially
through American mass media, as to the existence of ADHD and which
treatments for the disorder are most effective. It is difficult to
determine whether media coverage influences the prevalence of diagnoses,
and doctors need not release diagnosis rates because ADHD is not an
infectious disease. Yet, awareness of the disorder and the number of
children who receive treatment have shown marked increases, and in light of
differing opinions about ADHD, the current study seeks to identify any
dominant themes and assumptions associated with the disorder. The study
examines the amount of coverage ADHD has received as well as its
fundamental portrayal in three prominent American news magazines: Time,
Newsweek, and U.S. News and World Report. The study is grounded
theoretically in the agenda setting and building effects of mass media
(McCombs & Shaw, 1972; Lang & Lang, 1983), which suggest that media (a)
tell news consumers what to think about with regard to unobtrusive issues,
and (b) frame those issues in a certain manner. Because consumers may act
based on what they read in established media outlets, it becomes important
to study the content to which they are exposed.
Before addressing mediated portrayals, some history of ADHD is necessary,
for what has been studied and discovered by medical professionals and
trained scientists may prove somewhat different than what media outlets
report for common knowledge. What all camps might acknowledge is that an
increasing number of children are being diagnosed with ADHD. The closest
estimates state that 1.6 million 6- to 11- year olds have
attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (Centers for Disease Control [CDC]
study, 2002, p. 3), which is equivalent to seven percent of the youth
population. While medical treatment of ADHD is sought most often in the
first few years of school (Robison, Sclar, Skaer, & Galin, 1999, p. 209),
it remains a difficult diagnosis for most medical professionals. The
criteria for the diagnosis are ambiguous, and because no definitive tests
have been developed, doctors and psychologists are forced to use their best
judgements when diagnosing patients. Core symptoms of ADHD include
inattentiveness, impulsiveness, and/or hyperactivity (Robison et al., 1999,
p. 209). Inattentiveness is most commonly defined as difficulty in
concentrating, following directions, or finishing a task; hyperactivity is
often labeled by fidgeting, interrupting others, excessive talking, and
leaving one's seat in school (American Family Physician, 2002, p. 831).
Because the boundaries for this disorder are so blurred, one published CDC
study (2002) identifies the concern that ADHD is over diagnosed among
children who have regular access to health care (p. 3). According to this
report, while those who have regular contact with physicians are being over
diagnosed, those individuals who have limited or no access to health care
are remaining undiagnosed. Among those who are diagnosed with ADHD, there
are two primary means of treatment, including pharmacotherapy, such as
methylphenidates and amphetamines, and behavioral interventions (Robison et
al., 1999, p. 209). In their report, Robison et al. (1999) acknowledged
that in recent years, pharmacological treatment of ADHD has dramatically
increased, and that this type of treatment remains controversial because
there exists a concern over long-term stimulant medication use in children
(p. 209). The patients originally most diagnosed with this disorder were
Caucasian males between the ages of nine and twelve (Robison et al., 1999,
p. 209). However, in the last few years, the criteria for diagnosis have
shifted from simply hyperactivity toward inattention and impulsivity, which
may explain why the rates of diagnosis among female youths have risen
(Robison et al., 1999, p. 209).
The use of methylphenidates as a method of treatment for ADHD has
dramatically increased in the last decade. Research conducted by Robison
et al. (1999) suggests that the percentage of patients diagnosed with ADHD
increased 3.2-fold. In addition, over a six-year time frame,
methylphenidate accounted for 87.6% of all medications prescribed (p. 212).
Robison et al. (1999) stated several possible reasons for the increasing
trend in ADHD diagnoses, noting that greater public and physician awareness
and/or acceptance of this condition, combined with the acceptance of a
broader case definition, can be attributed to higher ADHD diagnosis rates
(1999, p. 215).
The concern over medicinal treatment for ADHD has arisen because it
appears to some professionals that this "is the latest 'fad diagnosis',"
(Soumerai, 1990, p. 783), and the use of methylphenidate stimulants in
children can have adverse effects. While some individuals who are treated
with stimulant medication experience common side effects of decreased
appetite and insomnia (Barkley, McMurray, Edelbrock, & Robbins, 1990, p.
184), the use of methylphenidates in children who do not require it can
produce side effects including hyperactivity, psychosis, hallucinosis,
growth disturbances, tic disorders, and other movement problems (Volkmar,
Hoder, & Cohen, 1985, p. 129). An even greater problem, according to
Volkmar et al. (1985), is that patients are put at risk not only for
potentially adverse effects, but also because oftentimes underlying
problems are not addressed (p. 130). An example of the danger of
misdiagnosis and treatment can be explained by a chart audit in which the
records of 68 children diagnosed with attention-deficit/hyperactivity
disorder were examined in a study conducted by Soumerai (1990). It appears
that up to one-half of the children being treated with psychostimulants may
not have ever had the disorder in the first place (p. 783). There have
been instances in which patients have refused the medicinal treatment
options suggested by their physicians. Reasons for this refusal can be
attributed to parents who are warned of drugs by the media, teachers,
pharmacists, physicians, psychologists, or other experts, side effects that
are not acceptable to either the parents or the child, and children who do
not wish to take medication because they have been warned of drugs in
school (Eichlseder, 1985, p. 180).
In addition, many parents of ADHD youths decided not to medicate their
children because of concerns about possible side effects as reported by the
media during the anti-Ritalin media blitz from 1987 to 1990 (Safer, 1996,
p. 1086). During the late 1980s and early 1990s, there was great concern
over the negative long-term effects produced by methylphenidates. However,
as the fear of adverse effects from methylphenidates subsided, the media's
portrayal of these drugs shifted. Safer (1996) noted that "major magazines
and newspapers which had carried anti-Ritalin stories during the media
blitz exhibited a far more positive perspective on the subject 5 years
later" (p. 1086). Similarly, in 1999, Robison et al. stated that there had
been an increased focus on attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder by the
lay and medical press (p. 209). The portrayals of methylphenidates and
ADHD appear to be drastically different now than they were ten years
ago. To understand fully the impact that the changing attitudes toward
ADHD and Ritalin have had, one must also examine media portrayals.
Debate has existed for years as to the effects that media have on
consumers, and in the early 1970s McCombs and Shaw (1972) introduced
agenda-setting theory, which has shaped more than 100 studies since that
time. While it is recognized that media have some influence on people's
attitudes, behaviors, and cognitions, based on studies such as those
conducted by McCombs and Shaw, the exact effects of this influence can only
be theorized. Pfau and King (1993) suggested that "individual uses of the
media act as an intervening variable: mitigating or enhancing the ultimate
effects of a media message" (p. 182). Similarly, media exposure can become
an integral part of an individual's social interactions and environment
(Pfau and King). Media involvement, in short, has the ability to be highly
influential in determining an individual's attitudes, especially with
respect to unobtrusive issues. Most studies show that, for most people,
media serve as major forms of information and have substantial effects on
lifestyles (Chesterfield-Evans, 1988, p. 44).
The ways in which people use the information provided by media to
interact with others is also a determining factor in the overall effects
produced. Researchers disagree on the effects that media have on
consumers. While some believe that interpersonal interactions filter media
effects, others argue that media effects are enhanced by these interactions
(Lasorsa & Wanta, 1990, p. 804). Slater (1999) noted that perceived social
norms and expectations can be influenced by discussion of media
coverage. Lasorsa et al. (1990) suggested that individuals who are exposed
to news media determine the importance of a subject based upon media's
coverage (p. 805). Lasorsa et al. also suggested that people will discuss
media issues that affect their lives, and in doing so, will be more likely
to adhere to the agenda of the news media (p. 812). Studies conducted to
examine the influence of print media on a population conclude, in large
part, that "print messages require more active processing on the part of
receivers" (Pfau & King, 1993, p.183), and as a result, can be more
influential. Also, it is likely that those who regularly use print media
as a source of information can be characterized as heavy users of this type
of medium, and studies have demonstrated that "heavy users of a specific
medium are uniquely susceptible to influence via that medium" (Pfau & King,
1993, p.183). Given these potential effects of media, the article now moves
to the methods employed in studying magazine portrayals of ADHD.
Methods
In this study, Time, Newsweek, and U. S. News and World Report, three
prominent news magazines, were analyzed for a variety of characteristics
related to portrayals of ADHD. A Lexis-Nexis search was performed to find
all mentions of attention-deficit disorder (ADD),
attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), and Ritalin (the most
pertinent search terms) in each magazine. The earliest mention of these
terms was as follows: Time, 1989; Newsweek, 1993; and U. S. News and World
Report, 1988. All items (n=102) that focused on
attention-deficit/hyperactivity-disorder were examined across a 14-year
period, running from the earliest mention, in 1988, to the point at which
the study was completed, in 2002.
Magazine items were analyzed according to the length of coverage in pages
and the type of coverage (i.e. article, sidebar, letter). Specifically, an
article had to be at least one page long, featuring pictures, a bold
headline, and statements of fact. A sidebar was considered to be at least
one paragraph, though no longer than one page, absent of pictures, with
comparatively small headlines. Letters were considered to be those mentions
found in the first few pages of the magazines, written by readers in
response to previous articles or sidebars, and were no more than two
paragraphs in length. Consideration was given to coverage type because
texts that cover a greater number of pages and are featured as articles may
attract more attention from readers than either sidebars or letters, and
thus may have greater impact.
Next, coverage was evaluated based on several facets of content. First,
values were assigned for mentions of ADD and ADHD, respectively, for
varying reasons. It appears that in both professional and popular
literature, what was once considered ADD has now come to include symptoms
of hyperactivity, leading to a newer all-inclusive diagnosis of ADHD. In
response to this trend, the authors thought it necessary to identify
specifically which diagnostic label was used. Consideration was also given
to whether another psychiatric disorder was mentioned. The importance of
this variable is its ability to influence a parent who may suspect that his
or her child has ADHD to seek diagnosis and treatment. If depression,
bipolar disorder, or mania, for example, are mentioned alongside ADHD,
parents may falsely believe that these disorders are related to ADHD and
feel a greater urgency to have their child treated.
Another variable indicated whether a description of the symptoms of
ADD/ADHD were provided in the text. The importance here is that if a
parent, who had never considered a child to fit the criteria for an ADHD
diagnosis, read symptoms of hyperactivity, inability to concentrate, and
lack of ability to finish tasks, all commonly stated as primary symptoms of
ADHD, the parent might be more eager to seek diagnosis and treatment.
Next, the types of treatment mentioned in the text were taken into
consideration. Text was coded for mentions of both medicinal treatment and
behavioral treatment. The authors divided the first variable, medicinal
treatment, into four categories: (1) A mention of Ritalin, (2) mention of
drugs other than Ritalin, (3) both Ritalin and other drugs, and (4) no
mention of drug treatment. The variable assigned to behavioral treatment
was less specific, only taking into consideration whether behavioral
therapy through a psychiatrist, school counselor, or outside therapy group
was mentioned.
The authors thought it was important as well to identify sources quoted
directly or indirectly in the text. Three variables for this category were
assigned. The first variable took into account whether the use of a doctor
or an expert in the field of behavioral disorders was mentioned. This
variable was important because of the belief that having a doctor or
medical expert list symptoms of ADHD, for example, is more persuasive than
simply listing the symptoms without attributing them to an expert source. A
second variable was assigned to the presence of a parent or layperson as a
source. One might argue that if parents reading the publication are exposed
to the thoughts, feelings, and experiences of other parents in similar
situations, they may be more likely to identify with the source, which
could lend more persuasive effects leading to treatment. The final variable
used in identifying sources was a non-specific other, most commonly a
published author who had knowledge of the disorder, yet did not hold any
professional credentials. This source could be influential in that parents,
upon reading the source's remarks, might be more inclined to read
literature authored by the source and could be influenced about the
existence of ADHD.
Another variable indicated whether the text provided a specific case of a
child diagnosed with ADHD. As with the previous variable of using a parent
as a source, the authors reasoned that if a reader were exposed to a
specific case of a child with ADHD, he or she might be more likely to
identify commonalities between the child portrayed and his or her child,
and thus be more inclined to seek diagnosis.
The presence of statistics within the text was another variable taken into
consideration. If statistics were provided in an article, the opinion of
the readers as to the perceived prevalence of ADHD, effective treatment,
and the likelihood of a child having the disorder could be influenced.
Another factor taken into consideration was whether the text stated that
ADHD occurs more often in males. While the rates of diagnosis among males
and females have become more equal in recent years, it is still more
commonly diagnosed among elementary-school males. The most common symptoms
are more prevalent in boys, which may be the reason males are diagnosed
more frequently. Girls with this disorder have a tendency to withdraw
socially, instead of acting out, which could possibly be misdiagnosed as
depression instead of ADHD. The text was also surveyed for a mention of the
present concern over misdiagnosis. The potential for misdiagnosis with this
disorder is great because the criteria are so ambiguous, and children can
display the disorder in various ways. If a reader who believes that his or
her child has ADHD is exposed to this concern, the eagerness to receive
diagnosis and treatment may be greatly influenced.
Finally, the text was examined for whether there was a statement concerning
the adverse side effects of medications prescribed for ADHD. This variable
was highly important in that many people are unaware that Ritalin,
Adderall, and other methylphenidates may actually cause ADD-like symptoms
to worsen. This factor is also important when determining if the text would
influence parents to seek treatment for their child. The last factor
considered was the presence of the words 'Ritalin' or 'hyperactivity' in
the text's headline. The presence of these words conceivably could cause
readers who would otherwise pass over an article to stop and take note.
After coding all texts that mentioned ADD, ADHD, or Ritalin in Time,
Newsweek, and U. S. News and World Report, a comparison was made between
the publications as to the amount of coverage given to the subject of ADHD,
the years in which coverage dramatically increased or decreased, and the
characteristics of specific content found in each publication.
Results
Since 1988, Time, Newsweek, and U. S. News and World Report have published
a substantial number of articles, sidebars, and letters
(n=102). Interestingly, U. S. News and World Report published twice as
many total items as Time and Newsweek combined. Of the 102 pieces of text
studied, U. S. News and World Report was responsible for 52 pieces of text
(51%), while Time published 26 (25.5%), and Newsweek published 23
(22.5%). Articles accounted for a majority of the texts, at 64.7%, with
sidebars accounting for 29.4% of observed items, along with five
letters. Seventy-one percent of publications were no more than two pages
long (44.1% one page and 27.5% two pages), while eight articles were three
pages long (7.8%), seven articles were four to five pages in length (6.9%),
and fourteen articles were longer than five pages (13.8%), with the two
longest articles covering nine pages of text.
Figure 1 summarizes the frequency of publications in all three magazines
for the years 1988 through 2002. Of particular note in this figure is the
rise in editorial coverage of ADHD, from the point at which coverage began
(1988) to the point at which the content analysis concluded (2002).
Figure 1
About Here
Of the 102 articles coded for this study, 50 (49%) of those mentioned ADD
and 45 (44.1%) mentioned ADHD. The remaining seven articles that mentioned
neither ADD nor ADHD focused more on medicinal treatment such as Ritalin,
its uses and its side effects, instead of the actual disorder. Slightly
more than half of the articles examined (51.0%) mentioned a psychological
disorder other than ADD or ADHD. Surprisingly, only 39 articles (38.2%)
described the symptoms commonly associated with ADHD. Yet, of those that
did describe symptoms, 33.3% (n=13) also stated that ADHD was more common
in boys. Only four of the articles (6.3%) did not provide a summary of
symptoms, yet still stated that ADHD occurred more often in
males. Fifty-nine of the articles (93.7%) provided neither symptoms of
ADHD, nor stated that it had higher diagnostic rates in males.
There were important findings within the texts in reference to the
treatment methods assessed. Only thirty articles (29.4%) out of the 102
analyzed did not refer to some sort of medicinal treatment. Forty articles
(39.2%) stated only Ritalin as a treatment method, while eight (7.8%)
referred to other drugs. However, 24 articles (23.5%) cited both Ritalin
and other drugs as possible treatment methods. A significant finding in
the survey of material is that out of the 26 articles appearing in Time
magazine that mentioned medicinal treatment, twenty-one (80.8%) mentioned
Ritalin specifically.
Seventy-one pieces of text (69.6%), a large majority, gave no mention of
behavioral treatment as a way to treat ADHD. Yet, the remaining 30.4%
(n=31) did mention some form of behavioral therapy through psychiatric
counseling, a school counselor, or group therapy.
The rates at which articles in some way referenced a source in the text
showed surprising equivalence. Fifty-four pieces of text (52.9%) either
directly or indirectly used a medical doctor or an expert in this field as
a source of information, leaving 48 pieces of text (47.1%) with no mention
of this type of source. With regard to using a parent or layperson as a
source of information or example, 50 pieces of text (49.0%) attributed some
information to these people, while 52 (51.0%) did not. Other non-specific
sources of information, usually authors who did not hold professional
credentials, were cited most often with rates of occurrence in 58 pieces of
text (56.9%), leaving 44 pieces of text (43.1%) with no mention of these
types of sources.
Interestingly, the rates at which the varying texts used specific cases as
examples was perfectly divided. Fifty-one articles, sidebars, or letters
provided an actual portrayal of a child diagnosed with ADHD, while the
remaining half did not. The rates at which statistics were provided in
each text were not as equal. Fifty-eight pieces of text (56.9%) gave no
statistics. Similarly, a large portion (n=68; 66.7%) did not mention the
potential for misdiagnosis anywhere in the text. Only 34 pieces of text
(33.3%) addressed the possibility that children could be misdiagnosed or
that ADHD is possibly being over diagnosed or misdiagnosed among American
youth. Finally, the rates in which the words 'Ritalin' or 'hyperactivity'
appeared in the headlines were surprisingly small. The word Ritalin only
appeared in 12 headlines (11.8%), and hyperactivity appeared nine times
(8.8%). The two words did appear together in two headlines (2.0%), and the
remaining 79 headlines (77.5%) contained neither word.
Discussion
The findings from this research are important with regard to media
portrayals of child psychological disorders. The authors correctly assumed
that media coverage of ADHD would increase dramatically throughout the
1990s. While it is difficult to determine exactly how media coverage of
ADHD correlates with the diagnosis of the disorder in American youth, there
is little doubt that the two factors are related. Before media attention
was given to the disorder, the general population may not have been aware
of the symptoms and treatments available. As a result, children who fit
the diagnostic criteria for ADHD potentially could have gone untreated.
Yet, as media coverage increased and the public was made more aware of the
disorder, parents and teachers would have been better educated and more
willing to seek a diagnosis. This is where the agenda setting and agenda
building theories of mass media become important. As indicated earlier,
media not only tell people what to think about with regard to unobtrusive
issues, but also frame those issues in a certain manner. With respect to
ADHD, many frames are conceivable, cutting across symptoms, treatment
methods, and the gender of those affected. So, while it is difficult to say
how directly the media have contributed to the increased diagnosis of ADHD,
it is possible to conclude that media have played a role.
The findings from this research reveal that while ADD and ADHD were
mentioned in all but seven articles, the symptoms of the disorder were
provided in slightly more than one-third of the texts. In addition, of the
articles that did provide common symptoms, only four articles did not also
state that the disorder occurred more commonly in males, while none stated
that the disorder was also prevalent in young females. The implications of
this finding are great. It appears that males are much more likely to
receive a diagnosis of ADHD, and media may play a role. The symptoms
provided in all of the publications were those most commonly found in
males. As a result, if parents and teachers use the information provided
in these publications to evaluate a child and determine his or her need for
medical treatment, ADHD may remain undiagnosed in a large portion of the
female population. This finding suggests that media's role in helping to
raise awareness of social concerns, in this case ADHD, may in fact be
detrimental. Males, of course, will be diagnosed more when the common
symptoms provided to educate parents and teachers are those most commonly
found in males.
The findings regarding the coverage or mention of other psychiatric
disorders in addition to ADHD were non-significant. It was determined that
other disorders were mentioned in almost exactly half of the texts
surveyed, and so no inference can be made as to the potential of this
variable to persuade parents to seek treatment for
attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder.
The data found concerning the suggested treatment for ADHD are important
when one considers the impact the media can have on influencing a
population's attitudes about medical treatment. In almost 71 percent of
the texts examined, some type of medicinal treatment was suggested as a way
to correct the symptoms most commonly associated with the disorder. Of
those texts, 62.7 percent mentioned Ritalin. While the controversy
surrounding the use of Ritalin cannot be summarized within the contexts of
this study, it is important to note that concern does exist over the uses
and misuses of this particular drug. As stated in the preceding review of
literature, the use of Ritalin in the United States has increased
dramatically, and it is possible that media coverage of Ritalin has
contributed to this increase. The potential use of other prescribed drugs
to treat this disorder was also suggested in a portion of the articles,
although not nearly as often as Ritalin was suggested. The implications of
this finding suggest that when a layperson is exposed to the information
provided in these publications, a potential exists for that person to seek
treatment based on the symptoms listed and the medicinal treatment
suggested. As a result, a parent who reads an article in one of these
texts may become convinced that his or her child fits the criteria for
diagnosis of ADHD and should receive the most readily available
prescription to control the symptoms. So, when media continuously suggest
that Ritalin or similar drugs are the most accessible way to treat this
disorder, a larger portion of parents may insist that their child receive
such treatment.
Relatively few pieces of text, less than one-third, suggested behavioral
therapy as a means to mitigate the symptoms of ADHD. While in some
instances it is necessary to treat a person's symptoms with prescriptions,
employing behavioral therapy offers a non-intrusive method of treatment
that teaches children how to regulate their behavior. Yet, this type of
treatment obviously requires more effort from parents, teachers, and
medical professionals. One can advance the normative argument that media
have a responsibility to fully cover all treatment options when reporting
about a medical condition. Yet, from the data collected in this study, it
appears that media have not done so.
Time, Newsweek, and U. S. News and World Report have provided extensive
amounts of coverage to suggested methods of treatment of ADHD, yet a large
majority of the texts failed to mention the potential negative side effects
of the prescription drugs used to treat this disorder, as well as a concern
that exists among medical professionals that the disorder may be
misdiagnosed. In all three media sources examined during the course of
this study, the adverse side effects of prescribed medication were
mentioned in less than one-third of the texts for each source. This
finding is important because it appears that while a majority of the media,
based on this study, suggested Ritalin or other such stimulants as a method
for treatment, little consideration or print coverage was given to the
potentially dangerous side effects these medications can produce. The
texts in which the side effects were mentioned covered real-life stories in
which parents discontinued administering the medication to their children
because the symptoms of the disorder were exacerbated or the child
displayed potentially harmful behaviors to him- or herself and others. The
side effects potentially produced from methylphenidates are harmful, and it
is a necessary responsibility of the media to report the effects of a
medication when suggesting that medication as a form of treatment.
Another controversy surrounding ADHD is the idea that it is currently
being misdiagnosed or over diagnosed. The results form this study found
that while Time, Newsweek, and U.S. News and World Report reported the
possibility of misdiagnosis at approximately the same rate, that rate was
quite low. Overall, the issue of misdiagnosis was mentioned in only
one-third of the texts, greatly disproportional to the coverage that
suggested medicinal treatments received. Interestingly, it should be
pointed out that as previously mentioned, Time magazine suggested medicinal
treatment, specifically Ritalin, in all but five of their published texts
pertaining to this subject. So, it seems that while these publications are
eager to propose treatment for ADHD, they do not give equal amounts of
coverage to the concern among some medical professionals that too many
children are being given this medication unnecessarily.
An important finding of this study also pertained to the mentions of
sources within texts. While each source considered—medical professionals,
parents and lay persons, and others—were reported with approximately the
same frequency (one-half), the specific sources used appeared to vary
between publications. Most notably, it was found that U. S. News and World
Report and Newsweek cited parents or laypersons as sources in more than
one-half of the texts pertaining to this topic. In contrast, Time cited
parents or laypersons in slightly more than one-fourth of their
publications. The suggestion of this finding is that Time uses more
professional references or no references at all in their texts. In
examining how this use of sources may influence Time's credibility, it
appears that even though laypersons may not be able to identify with the
sources in the text, the information provided will most likely be more
influential because it is attributed to professionals or experts in a
particular field.
With regard to future research, it might be interesting to examine a
larger variety of print sources, including newspapers, and also television
media. Also, survey research could be conducted among physicians, parents,
and teachers to determine influential factors that may cause an individual
to seek diagnosis and treatment. While this study examined how magazine
coverage of ADHD varied among publications and years, it would be
interesting to conduct a content analysis on other types of media and
cross-analyze that data with survey research. There is no doubt that media
influence attitudes toward health issues; however, the specific magnitude
of effects can only be determined through research that includes a survey
component.
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