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Science in Cyberspace:
An Analysis of Science Web Sites for Girls
Introduction
Stereotypes that portray science as a male domain pervade the social and cultural environment in which girls live. In schools, teachers perpetuate this stereotype by giving preferential treatment to boys in science classes (American Association of University Women 1992, Jones and Wheatley 1990, Kahle and Lakes 1983, Matyas 1985, Morse and Handley 1985); using teaching approaches that favor male intellectual styles (Lock 1992, Shemesh 1990, Skolnick et. al. 1982); holding stereotypical perceptions of girls' ability to succeed in science (Shepardson and Pizzini 1992); and using science textbooks that show few women scientists (Bazler and Simonis 1991, Potter and Rosser 1992). At home parents reinforce these stereotypes by not providing encouragement or expecting their daughters to achieve in science and math (Farmer 1997) and by discouraging their daughters from traveling to take advantage of research opportunities (Campbell 1991). The mass media further accentuate these stereoty
pes through unrealistic and limited portrayals of women scientists in children's television programming (Steinke and Long 1996), magazine biographies (LaFollette 1988), newspapers (Nelkin 1987), and films (Elena 1997, Steinke 1999). In fact, a study of a group of female undergraduate science students noted: "The majority felt that there was a paucity of cultural representations of their lives: few had books, television shows, magazines, or advertisements with which they identified" (Erwin and Maurutto 1998, p. 64).
The stereotypes girls are exposed to in the messages and images they receive at school, home and from the mass media lead them to develop what researchers have called a "masculine image of science" (Kelly and Small 1986). Research shows that girls and young women are more likely to think of scientists as male (Baker and Leary 1995, Chambers 1983, Maoldomhnaigh and Hunt 1988, Mead and Metraux 1957) and are less confident of their ability in science (Erwin and Maurutto 1998, Kahle et al.,1993, Kahle and Lakes 1983). Studies also report that girls and young women have negative attitudes toward science, scientists and scientific activities (Kahle and Lakes 1983, Mason and Kahle 1988, Vockell and Lobonc 1981, Wareing 1990). Research points out that these psychological and sociological factors contribute to the gender gap in science (Eccles 1987, Campbell 1991).
Despite the progress made in recent years, women continue to be underrepresented in science, engineering and technology in the United States. Statistics indicate that only 19.4 percent of the workforce in science, engineering and technology are women, and women from all underrepresented minorities make up an even smaller percentage of the workforce in these fields (National Science Foundation 2000). Women make up 36.2 percent of the workforce in the life sciences, 27.3 percent of the workforce in computer science, 21.9 percent of the workforce in the physical sciences and 9.1 percent of the workforce in engineering (National Science Foundation 2000). Surveys conducted by the National Science Foundation show that the percentage of female life scientists, physical scientists and engineers remained the same between 1993 and 1997 (National Science Foundation 2000).
The gender gap in science can be traced back to the educational choices made by girls and young women. Statistics show that while women earn a slightly higher number of degrees in the biological/agricultural sciences at the bachelor's level, they earn fewer degrees at the graduate level and fewer degrees at all levels in most other scientific fields. In 1996, women earned 50.2 percent of all bachelor's degrees, 49 percent of all master's degrees and 39.9 percent of all doctoral degrees in the biological/ agricultural sciences. In the physical sciences, women earned only 37 percent of all bachelor's degrees, 33.2 percent of all master's degrees, and 21.9 percent of all doctoral degrees (National Science Foundation 1999). In engineering, women earned only 17.9 percent of all bachelor's degrees, 17.1 percent of all master's degrees, and 12.3 percent of all doctoral degrees (National Science Foundation 1999).
Participation in science at the high school level follows a similar trend. A 1997 study of the College-Level Advanced Placement examinations indicates an overall increase in the percentage of women who took the exam in mathematics and science from 1987 to 1997. However, a smaller percentage of women than men took the exam in calculus, computer science, chemistry and physics. For example, 63 percent of men and 37 percent of women took the Calculus BC exam; 83 percent of men and 17 percent of women took the computer science exam; 58 percent of men and 42 percent of women took the chemistry exam; and 77 percent of men and 23 percent of women took the physics exam (College Board Online 1997).
Interaction with women scientists has been identified as an effective strategy for breaking down the stereotypical perceptions girls and young women have of (Evans et.al. 1995, Humphreys 1982, and Schmidt and Nixon 1996). Science intervention programs provide girls and young women with contact with women scientists whose lives and experiences break the existing social and cultural stereotypes of women scientists. Many girls and young women still, however, find few opportunities to interact with women scientists. In the absence of real-life role models, images of women scientists in the media become important sources of information about science. Girls and young women who have little access to the world of science are likely to construct an understanding of the role of women in science based partly on media images of women scientists.
Little research has examined the portrayal of women scientists on the World Wide Web. The expansive nature of the Web and its popularity among children and teens offers the potential for reaching a large audience of girls and young women. But, what is known about science Web sites for girls? What are the goals of these sites? How do they convey scientific information? What other content do they provide? How do they portray women scientists? Do these portrayals reinforce or counter cultural stereotypes of women scientists. The purpose of this study is to explore these questions. The first part of this study will gather descriptive information on Web sites about science for girls. The second part of this study will assess the portrayals of women scientists on these sites.
Gender Schema Theory and Media Effects
Psychological theories of development suggest that media images affect children's perceptions of gender roles because children learn about gender roles from cues in their environment (Bem 1981, 1983, 1993). According to gender schema theory, children raised in a society that emphasizes differences based on gender will readily process and interpret information about themselves based on cultural definitions of gender-appropriate behavior. Gender schemata, "cognitive structures that organize an individual's gender-related knowledge, beliefs, attitudes, and preferences" (Liben and Signorella 1993, p. 141), help children process information about gender. Children internalize and identify with the cultural definitions of gender they find embedded in discourse and social practices (Bem 1993).
Research on images of women scientists on the World Wide Web is important because of the research findings cited below:
1. Girls hold a "masculine image of science" (Kelly 1985) and tend to think that all or most scientists are male (Baker and Leary 1995, Chambers 1983, Maoldomhnaigh and Hunt 1988, Mead and Metraux 1957).
2. The mass media present mixed messages to children about women scientists (Baker and Leary 1995, LaFollette 1981, Steinke and Long 1996, Steinke 1997, Steinke 1999).
3. Children readily interpret information based on cultural definitions of gender-appropriate and gender-inappropriate attributes (Bem 1981, Bem 1983, Bem 1993, Calvert and Huston 1987, Koblinsky et al. 1978, Levy 1995, Liben and Signorella 1980, Ruble and Stangor 1986, Signorella 1992).
4. Direct educational intervention can reduce children's gender-role stereotyping of occupations (Bigler 1995, Bigler and Liben 1990, Bigler and Liben 1992, Flerx et. al. 1976, Johnston and Ettema 1982, O'Bryant and Corder-Bolz 1978).
5. Girls from low socioeconomic backgrounds who have had few opportunities to interact with real-world role models change their professional aspirations after exposure to televised portrayals of women in non-traditional occupational roles (Griffin et al. 1994).
Research is needed on the portrayals of women scientists in the mass media because these images can shape the gender role schemas further perpetuating the gender gap in science, engineering and technology. The internalization of stereotypical definitions of gender roles limits girls' and young women's education and vocational choices. Eccles (1987) explains: "[A]similation of the culturally-defined gender-role schema can have such a powerful effect on one's view of the world that activities classified as part of the opposite sex's roles may be rejected without any serious evaluation or consideration" (141).
Methodology
The purpose of the first part of this study was to generate descriptive data on the content provided on science Web sites for girls. The purpose of the second part of this study was to examine the biographies of women scientists found on these sites. Science Web sites for girls were defined as those that addressed girls as a primary audience and included content on science, engineering or technology.
Search Engine Watch (http://www.searchenginewatch.com) was used to identify 12 metasearch engines used to search for science Web sites for girls. The metasearch engines listed by Search Engine Watch were Dogpile, Ixquick, MetaCrawler, QuickBrowse, Search.com, Inference Find, C4, InfoGrid, SurfWax.com, TeRespondo and Mamma. TeRespondo was eliminated from the sample because search results were given in Spanish; ProFusion was eliminated from the sample because it did not allow for searching by keyword. A search of the World Wide Web was conducted for each of the 10 selected metasearch engines using "girls and science" as keywords. The number of results generated from these searches ranged from 30 to 245. The total number of results from all 10 metasearch engines was 1,204.
Each search result was reviewed to determine its relevance to the focus of the study. Many of the Web sites were eliminated because they were not Web sites about science for girls. Only those sites that focused on girls as the primary audience and focused on science, engineering and technology were included in the analysis. The following types of Web sites were eliminated: listserv discussion listings; announcements or reports on conferences; science-related television shows, films and books; scholarly or professional reports and publications; promotional information related to science programs, camps, museums and schools; tutoring programs, professional organizations that did not have a specific page or site for girls; sites about science that focused only on parents and teachers as the target audience; personal home pages and sites that were not about science. Web sites from science intervention programs for girls that also provided science content that could be used by a ge
neral audience were included. A few additional Web sites were located from links provided on the sites generated by the searches. A total of 27 Web sites were identified for inclusion in this study (see Table 1).
Table 1: List of WWW About Science For Girls
Web Site Name
URL
1. Science is for Girls
http://www.hopper.com/scigirl.html
2. Girls Ask Why
http://jfg.girlscouts.org/why/why.htm
3. Girls and Women in Science Links
http://www.beloit.edu/~gwsci/gwslinks.html
4. Rural and Urban Images: Voices of Girls in Science, Mathematics, and Technology
http://www.ael.org/nsf/voices/index.htm
5. Portia Web: The Gateway into SET for all women
http://www.portiaweb.org
6. Tomorrow's Girl
http://www.tomorrows-girl.com
7. Women Who Walk Through Time
http://www.mines.utah.edu/geo/video/GeoWomens.html
8. Advocates for Women in Science, Engineering and Mathematics
http://awsem.com/witi.html
9. Women of NASA
http://quest.arc.nasa.gov/women
10. Against the Odds
http://nrgen.com/against_the_odds/index.html
11. Girls Incorporated
http://www.girlsinc.org
12. GirlTech
http://www.girltech.com/Tech_Trips/TT_menu_frame.html
13. Engineer Girl
http://www.engineergirl.org/nae/cwe/egmain.nsf/?Opendatabase
14. Plugged-In
http://www.plugged-in.org/indexFlash.html
15. The Role Model Project for Girls
http://www.womenswork.org/girls/index.html
16. The Girl Scientist (Brainpop)
http://www.girlscientist.org/new/
17. Inventive Women
http://www.inventivewomen.com/newindex.html
18. Internet for Girls
http://www.sdsc.edu/~woodka/resources.html
19. Girl Power Locker
http://www.health.org/gpower/girlarea
20. Institute for Women in Trades, Technology and Science
http://www.iwitts.com
21. The Backyard Project
http://www.backyard.org
22. Remarkable Careers in Oceanography
http://www.womenoceanographers.org
23. Speak Out!
http://speakout.terc.edu/index
24. Universe Girl
http://www.universegirl.com
25. By Girls, For Girls
http://www.bygirlsforgirls.org/home.html
26. Autodesk
http://www.autodesk.com/dyf/dyfmain2.html
27. The Adventure of Josie True
http://www.josietrue.com
Each of the 27 Web sites was reviewed and copies were made of relevant pages from each site. The following information was recorded for each site: name, sponsor or creator, most recent date provided, primary audience (girls, parents and teachers), scientific disciplines represented, types of knowledge-building activities, scientific projects or experiments, biographies of women scientists, and career information (see Appendix A for the Web site coding sheet).
Fourteen of the 27 Web sites that included biographies of women working in science, engineering and technology were analyzed further to assess the portrayals of women scientists on these sites. Only biographies featured in the 27 sites were included in the sample; links to biographies found at other Web sites were not included in order to prevent duplication. A total of 437 biographies were found on these Web sites. A subset of 166 of these biographies was selected for analysis. All of the biographies for Web sites that had 25 or fewer biographies and a random sample of 20 percent of the biographies for the two Web sites that had a large number of biographies (Women of NASA, N=182 and the Role Model Project, N=157) were selected for analysis. The sample was selected in this way to prevent over weighting by the two Web sites that featured a large number of biographies. Both historical and biographies of female scientists working today were included in the analysis (see Table 2).
Copies were made of all biographies.
The biographies were coded to assess the type of information provided. The following information was recorded: marital status, children, race, educational background, job description or career information, professional status, profession or area of study, and parental encouragement in science (see Appendix B for the role model coding sheet). In addition, the author examined the texts of the biographies for recurring themes about the experiences and personal lives of women scientists. Several themes identified from prior research on the experiences of women scientists in the United States were used as a framework for the textual analysis (Steinke 1999). These themes were early encouragement in science, professional relationships with male colleagues, and work and family issues.
Table 2: Web Sites Featuring Biographies of Women in Science,
Engineering and Technology.
Web Site Name
Number of Biographies Analyzed
1. Girls Ask Why
7
2. Portia Web: The Gateway into SET for all women
3
3. Tomorrow's Girl
8
4. Women Who Walk Through Time
8
5. Women of NASA
182 (36 selected for analysis)
6. Against the Odds
7
7. GirlTech
7
8. Engineer Girl
25
9. The Role Model Project for Girls
157 (31 selected for analysis)
10. The Backyard Project
9
11. Remarkable Careers in Oceanography
8
12. Speak Out!
10
13. Universe Girl
8
14. Autodesk
1
TOTAL
437 (166 selected for analysis)
A subset of the Web sites and a subset of the biographies of women in scientific careers were randomly selected and coded by the author and a research assistant to assess the intercoder reliability. Cohen's kappa was used to calculate intercoder reliability. The average reliability was .81, with reliabilities ranging from .62 to 1.00.
Results
The science Web sites examined in this study feature a variety of creators and sponsors, including scientists, professional scientific organizations, federal agencies, academic institutions, research institutes, foundations, nonprofit organizations and private companies. For example, Girl Scouts, NASA, National Academy of Engineering, National Science Foundation, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, Beloit College and UniverseGirl.com all maintain science Web sites for girls. Most of the Web sites have been developed within the past four years. The primary audience for these sites is girls of various ages, but several of the sites also include information or educational materials for parents and teachers (see Appendix C). The Web sites cover a range of scientific disciplines including astronomy, biology, chemistry, computing and technology, engineering, environmental science, geology and health. Space, nature and the environment, health, and computers are some of the more po
pular topics addressed in these sites (see Appendix D).
Presenting Information about Science
Twenty-one of the 27 Web sites analyzed provide educational material or information about science. Several sites provide fact sheets on various topics or use a question and answer format to teach facts about science. For example, the "Plugged-in" site provides in-depth information about acid rain by explaining what acid rain is and what effects it has on the environment and gives instructions on how to test a chemical substance to determine if it is an acid or a base. The "Girls Incorporated," "Women Who Walk Through Time," "Engineer Girl" and "Plugged-In" sites all use fact boxes or fact pages to covey scientific information on various topics. The "By Girls, For Girls" site gives fact sheets on various health topics written by girls.
Fifteen of the 27 sites also present science content through links to other science-related sites on the Web. For example, "Tomorrow's Girl's" list of "Neat Science Sites" includes links to the "Bill Nye, the Science Guy," the Exploratorium of San Francisco, the National Park Service and Science Central Web sites. The "Women Who Walk Through Time" site encourages girls to learn more about earth science by following links to sites about volcanoes; earthquakes; dinosaurs; water, ice and rocks; minerals and fossils. These links lead girls to photographs, video images, 3-D images and simulations.
A number of the sites take a more hands-on approach in presenting information about science by encouraging girls to try science experiments at home. For example, the "Girls Ask Why" site gives instructions on how to "Build a Structure," "Make Plants Drink by Themselves," and "Make an Electroscope." The "Engineer Girl" site features a project titled, "Chocolate Engineering." The "Rural and Urban Images: Voices of Girls in Science, Mathematics, and Technology," site not only provides hands-on science projects, but also teaches girls about the scientific method by encouraging them to conduct a survey on issues of concern to students in their schools.
Some sites use quizzes as a way to teach girls about science. "Girl Power Locker" and "Girls Incorporated" both test girls' knowledge of scientific topics. The "Inventive Women" site features online interactive quizzes. "Science is for Girls" sends girls on an "Internet Scavenger Hunt" to find answers to questions about science.
Two of the sites, "Girls Ask Why" and "GirlTech," use diaries to convey information about science. In the "Girls Ask Why" site, girls can read the diary of Hannah, a girl scout sent on a trip to Antarctica. In the "GirlTech" site, girls can read the diary of DD, a cartoon character, who keeps a diary about the scientists she meets on a visit to NASA.
Other Web sites take advantage of the interactive features of the Web to teach girls about science. "Girl Scientist" provides over 100 short, animated movies on various topics related to science, health and technology. Girls are greeted personally, "Hey there. Welcome to health," as they enter the BrainPOP.com site that highlights a wide range of scientific topics from relativity to homeostasis to acne to plate tectonics. This site also features "brainsqueezers" and "brainbuzzz" games, jokes, and news briefs from NASA. Girls can earn points and win prizes by answering questions after watching the movies.
Comic strips are another communication tool used in a couple of the Web sites. "Autodesk" features a monthly comic strip with interactive activities where girls can follow Jacqueline and Samantha through the trials and tribulations they face in middle school. In the comic strip, Jacqueline and Samantha discover they can draw cool pictures using computers and discuss issues related to self-esteem and peer pressure. Girls can play the "Drats, I'm Dunked" game to guess a word related to the lesson featured in the comic strip. "The Adventure of Josie True" features an animated comic strip online. Josie True travels across time and space as she attempts to find her inventor/science teacher Ms. Trombone. During their travels with Josie and her cat, girls meet famous female historical figures and play interactive activities to help Josie find her teacher.
A number of Web sites provide bulletin boards, message boards or chat rooms where girls can talk with one another. The message board on the "Girl Scientist" site features messages related to the BrainPOP movies, school and popular music groups. The message board on the "Autodesk" site offers girls an opportunity to discuss the monthly theme of the comic strip featured on the site.
Presenting Vocational Information
In addition to teaching girls about science, the Web sites analyzed in this study provide detailed information about careers in science, engineering and technology. Many of the 27 Web sites give vocational information directly on the site. For example, "Girl Scientist" discusses the professional responsibilities, experience and education, and career preparation needed for careers in civil/structural engineering, oceanography, computer animation, zoology, web design and others. "Portia Web: The Gateway into Science, Engineering and Technology (SET) for All Women" provides guidance in helping girls decide whether a career in SET is for them and in exploring career possibilities and employment opportunities in SET. The "Backyard Project" provides a list of career possibilities in computer programming, computer animation and software engineering. This site also describes the job environment in the computer industry (See Appendix E). Extensive vocational information also can be fo
und in the biographies of women working in science, engineering and technology. Sixteen of the 27 Web sites feature biographies of women in science, and a total of 440 biographies of women in science were featured on these Web sites. A few of the Web sites encourage girls to interact with scientists online through chats and bulletin boards. "Engineer Girl" sponsors an "Ask an Engineer" bulletin board and "Against the Odds" has a role model discussion board. "Women of NASA" and "Against the Odds" provide chats that allow girls and young women to "talk" with scientists online.
Biographies of Women Scientists
The biographies look at women who are working in a variety of scientific disciplines and who hold positions at various levels of prestige (see Table 3). Several of the sites focus on women scientists from one specific discipline. For example, the "Women Who Walk Through Time" site features women working as geologists, other sites like "The Role Model Project" and "UniverseGirl" present biographies of women from many different fields. Most of the women on the Web sites are scientists or engineers. Some of the women are executives or managers of companies, administrators at scientific agencies students, science teachers, research assistants or technicians and physicians, veterinarians or other medical professionals. Many of the biographies provide job descriptions for the positions held by the women profiled. Some of these give only brief descriptions of the positions; others include detailed reports with monthly, weekly, daily or hourly descriptions. The biographies vary in the amount of detail they provide; these range in length from a paragraph ("Role Model Project") to 16 pages ("Remarkable Careers in Oceanography.")
A total of 74 (80.4 percent) of the women in the biographies are Caucasian, 7 (7.6 percent) are African American, 5 (5.4 percent) are Asian, 4 (4.3 percent) are Hispanic, and 2 (2.2 percent) are American Indian. Race/ethnicity could not be determined for almost half of the women in the biographies (44.6 percent) because the race/ethnicity of the women could not be determined from the biography text or photograph.
A number of the biographies include information on the educational training of the women working in science. A total of 132 (79.5 percent) of the 169 biographies present information about the education of the women working in science.
The biographies address a variety of topics related to the professional and personal lives of women scientists. Several of the women working in science acknowledge the influence of their parents in encouraging them to pursue educational and professional opportunities in science. Many of the women in the 169 biographies (19.3 percent) note the support and encouragement they received from parents. A few women in the biographies report experiences with discrimination in the field. These mention problems with sexism, double standards and other form of discrimination from male teachers or colleagues. Several of the women in the biographies discuss their family lives. Fifty-four (33 percent) of the women in the biographies refer to their children. A more detailed discussion of these issues is provided in the next section of this paper.
Biographies of Women Scientists: Textual Analysis
A number of the biographies of women working in science note the importance of the encouragement they received from parents in their pursuit of careers in science. Most of the women cite their fathers as the primary source of support. For example, Debby Ramsey, third engineer onboard the University of Washington Research Vessel, recalls her dad taking her to see slide shows of NASA missions to the moon (Smith et. al. 2001). Isabelle Boucher, founder of the Biotech company ISM Biopolymer Inc., said her father encouraged her "often dangerous home science experiments," taught her how to take a car engine a part and supported her interest in becoming a scientist (Bigelow Currie Productions 2001).
Several of the women featured in the biographies note the role of their mothers in encouraging their interest in science. Carolyn Krumrey a division chief engineer for NASA writes: "When I was a young girl, my mother had the biggest influence on me. She was my role model and my best friend." (NASA, 2001). Stacey Morrison, deputy chief information officer for the Space and Life Sciences Directorate at the Johnson Space Center cites her mother and grandmothers as important role models in her life. (NASA 2001). Kathryn Kelly, principal oceanographer at the Applied Physics Laboratory at the University of Washington, said she decided to take a science class in 8th grade because her mother had said math and chemistry were her favorite subjects in school (Smith 2001).
The biographies of women working in science present mixed messages about the nature of women's professional relationships with their male colleagues. Several of the women noted in their biographies the changes in the field that have allowed for greater acceptance and equality. But still, other women discuss the challenges they faced early in their careers or now face. Margaret Leinen, assistant director of geosciences for the National Science Foundation, describes the discrimination she faced in school. She notes that her chemistry classes were almost exclusively men and that the professor would move the women around every day "so that all of the guys would get a chance to sit next to a girl sometime in class" (Smith et. al. 2001). She also mentions the challenges she faced early in her career was dealing with "an advisor who wasn't paying attention to me because he was paying attention to all of the male students."
Vicki Regenie, acting program manager for the Flight Research Base R&T Program at NASA, writes about the problems she faced entering the workforce. She explains: "As I started in engineering many years ago, I ran into more obstacles when I started working. I was turned down for jobs because I was a woman, and when I was hired I was told by my co-workers that I was only hired because I was a woman. I was able to change people's minds through proving my capabilities, but I found it difficult at times" (NASA 2001). She adds that today "the world has changed considerably, "and writes that she "no longer hear[s] many comments about myself or new women coming into the field" (NASA 2001).
Like Regenie, Heidi Bauer a software engineer at Macromedia, notes how she needed to prove her abilities in order to be accepted by her male colleagues. Her biography states: "As a young female, she was faced with the hurdle of entering a male dominated workplace. However, she overcame this by proving that she could easily meet the high expectations of her company just as easily as her male co-workers" (Garnett Foundation 2001).
Karen Weil Markus, a materials engineer at MEMS Technology Applications Center, notes the discrimination she has experienced. She writes: "There have been negative challenges. Sexual harassment, gender bias/discrimination, and academic snobbery are three. But for every difficult person or limited-thinker I've had to endure, I've been rewarded with knowing and working with some wonderful people. I guess it all balances out" (National Academy of Science 2001).
For some of the scientists, discrimination comes from outside the scientific community. Kathleen Dudzinski, a marine biologist and cetacean behaviorist, explains that the discrimination she has experienced has not come from male colleagues but from other men she encounters who are not used to relating to a woman who is leading an expedition. She writes: "I don't let a chauvinistic attitude bother me. In my opinion, that person is losing out in the end because of his or her short-sightedness" (Girl Scouts, 2001). Marine Seismologist Maya Tolstoy and Associate Professor of Geosciences Dawn Wright both found that some people think women should not be working at sea.
A number of the biographies discuss work and family issues. Many of the women mention balancing work and family as the most significant challenge they face as working scientists. Many discuss the specific strategies they use to help them balance these two important areas of their lives. These women cite supportive husbands, understanding co-workers and employers, and family-friendly policies as essential for helping them succeed both at work and at home.
Several of the women discuss work and family issues in terms of their right to have both a successful career and family. Kathleen Conlon Hinge, mechanical engineer at the Xerox Corporation who is pictured in a photograph with her daughter, writes: "Since having children, much of my focus has been on balancing work and family. I refuse to stop my career growth, but I also refuse to delegate wholesale my parenting experience. Right now, I insist on two things: that I do challenging work, and that I do it in balance with the rest of my life. My actions follow my priorities" (National Academy of Science 2001). Kwok Lau, vice president of Software Engineering Operations at Apple Computers Inc., attributes careful planning to her success in balancing work and family. She explains that her decision to wait to have children until after she established her career was important. She explains: "Now, because of careful planning, I have two children and a wonderful job, both of which I love" (Garnett Foundation 2001).
The "Women Who Walk Through Time" Web site features detailed daily accounts of how several women scientists balance work and family commitments. Diane Doser, a professor of geophysics, describes a morning schedule that starts at 6:30 a.m. when her 3-year-old daughter announces it is time to get up and includes getting her 3- and 6-year-old children ready, discussing a research pre-proposal with her husband, and driving the kids to day care and summer camp all before a 9 a.m. practice oral examination with a doctoral student. After providing details on her busy day as a professor of geophysics, Doser describes her evening schedule that includes picking up children at 5:15, fixing dinner, doing her half of the household chores, reading to children and getting them to bed by 8 a.m. (Wilson 2001).
Carol de Wet, professor of geosciences, describes how she splits one job with her husband at a liberal arts college. She explains: "One of the days I'm a scientist teaching my classes, working in my laboratory or out I the field, the other day, I'm a mom at home with my three children." She adds: "I think I am a very fortunate woman because I can experience the joys and difficulties of a career I love and be part of raising my children, who I love dearly too! It's a combination that demands all I can give, and there are days when I feel pulled in too many directions at once. But I wouldn't trade it for anything; I am keeping my mind busy with new intellectual challenges at work, and my heart happy with family challenges at home" (Wilson 2001).
Some of the women caution that balancing work and family is not always an easy task. Ellen Martin, a professor of geology who shares child care responsibilities with her husband, explains: "As a working parent, I do not have the luxury of working 12 hour days to get through the multitude of projects I face at work. As someone once told me - this simply means I have to be more productive during the time I have" (Wilson 2001). Kathryn Kelly is a principal oceanographer at the Applied Physics Laboratory at the University of Washington who shares the parenting of her two children with her husband. She explains: "But certainly day-to-day when you are trying to do everything, it can be a real challenge. When anybody asks me whether they can be a scientist and have kids, it's not for the faint-hearted. It can be done, but nobody ever said it was going to be easy" (Smith et. al. 2001).
Several of the women note the importance of supportive family leave and flex-time policies. Michelle Amos, an electronics engineer at the Kennedy Space Center says: "As a wife, mother and engineer, I have to choose between family and work often. Because of government policies like Family Leave and Flex-time and co-workers who understand the importance of the family, I am still loved and needed at home and at work" (NASA 2001). Similarly, Berta Alfonso, a design engineer at the Kennedy Space Center and mother of two children ages 12 and 3, explains that these policies allowed her to take six months off and work half time at half pay for six months when her 3-year-old was born (NASA 2001).
One scientist notes that while more support is given to women who are trying to balance work and family, more can be done. Bernadette Luna, research engineer for NASA, "My advice regarding families: You CAN have a career and a family and still be happy. Some women pursue both simultaneously; some take a break from their careers and raise a family and return to work afterwards. It's very individual, and the women who are NOW doing both are pioneering the way, pushing for flexible work options that someday will be commonplace. We're making slow progress." (NASA 2001).
The biographies of most of the women who have children focus on the ways women scientists do balance work and family. Questions about the feasibility of balancing work and family are more likely to surface in the biographies of women who do not identify themselves as having children. For example, Dr. K. Paige Carmichael, a veterinary pathologist, notes that what she likes least about her work is the long hours. She writes: "It's 7:02 p.m. as I write this, and I'll be here for at least another hour!" (Girl Scouts 2001). A professor of astrophysics at Princeton University writes: "You need to really want to do it though; it's tremendous hard work to get there and to stay there - but this is true of anything worth doing" (Women's Work 2001).
Discussion
This analysis suggests that the World Wide Web is a potentially powerful communication tool for conveying information about science and scientific careers to girls and young women. Unlike conventional science intervention programs, the ubiquitous nature of the Web allows for more widespread access and contact. Easy access to information about science, scientific careers and women scientists can encourage more girls and young women to consider pursuing educational and professional opportunities in science. By providing instruction in science, these Web sites may help in attracting girls' and young women's interest in science. By providing detailed information about the experiences and personal lives of women scientists, these Web sites may help counter existing cultural stereotypes of women scientists and narrow the gender gap in science, engineering and technology.
Many of the science Web sites analyzed in this study used a variety of creative techniques to attract girls' interest in science and to teach girls about science. In addition to providing information about science, a number of sites also encouraged hands-on participation in science by providing instructions for science experiments and projects for girls to try at home. Some of the sites used interactive activities like bulletin boards, chat rooms, 3-D photographs, animated movies and animated comic strips. Little research has looked at the effectiveness of the Web in teaching girls about science and increasing girls' interest in science. However, research in science education indicates that hands-on science experiences and small-group instruction help girls learn about science (Campbell and Clewell 1999).
Vocational information about careers in science, engineering and technology often was provided on the Web sites through facts sheets on specific careers, detailed biographies of professional women, and online mentoring conducted through chat rooms and bulletin boards. Studies show that young women look for information about the personal and professional lives of female role models (Erkut and Mokros, 1984; Gilbert, 1985; Hackett, et. al., 1989) and research has documented the importance of same-sex role models on girl's and young women's academic and professional success (Gilbert et. al., 1983). Interaction with women scientist role models has been singled out as one of the most important factors in fostering positive attitudes toward science and scientific careers among girls and young women (Evans, Whigham, and Wang, 1995; Humphreys, 1982; Schmidt and Nixon, 1996). Research also has emphasized the important role the mass media can play in providing positive role models of wome
n scientists (Steinke 1998). The biographies and online mentoring may be particularly effective techniques for reaching a large number of girls and young women and connecting them with women scientist role models.
Overall, the portrayals of women scientists on these Web sites were positive. Women scientists were presented in positions of high status within science, engineering and technology. Many of the women profiled in the biographies worked as scientists, engineers, consultants and administrators. These findings are similar to those found in Steinke's (1997) study of PBS documentaries of women scientists, but differerent from the findings of Steinke and Long's (1996) study of children's television science program that found most female characters were shown as pupils, laboratory assistants, or science reporters. In order to present positive portrayals of women scientist role models that counter existing cultural stereotypes, the mass media need to continue to show women in positions of high prestige in science-related fields.
The textual analysis of the biographies provided a rich source of information on the portrayal of women scientists on science Web sites for girls. Many of the women profiled in the biographies commented on the role of their parents in encouraging their pursuit of careers in science. Research has pointed out the importance of parental support in fostering girls' and young women's interest in science. Eccles (1987) explains that parents serve as important role models: "Through their own occupations, parents provide salient information on available occupational options" (Eccles, 1987, p. 141). Other researchers have noted particularly that the positive influence of fathers can encourage young women to pursue "nontraditional" occupations (Hackett et.al., 1989). Eccles points out that role models often serve to create awareness of occupational options. She writes: "These models may legitimize novel or non-traditional options, raising these options to the level of conscious con
sideration" (Eccles, 1987, p. 142).
The biographies of the women working in science-related fields often acknowledge their experiences with discrimination. But many of these women describe recent progress made towards acceptance and equality. Extensive research has examined the "chilly climate" women often face in science. A National Science Foundation report (2000) notes the factors that hinder the advancement and retention of women in the workplace. These include the absence of female role models, mentors and colleagues, supervisors' stereotyping of women's abilities, difference in communication style, and exclusion from all-male networks. While it is important that media images raise girls' and young women's awareness of the "chilly climate" that may exist in these areas, it is even more important for media images to show that the improvements made in producing more inclusive workplaces in science, engineering and technology.
A number of the women discussed the issue of balancing families with work in science, engineering or technology. Concerns about how to balance work and family appear to be a recurring issue in the research on the factors that keep girls and young women from pursuing scientific careers. Girls and young women often are told that a successful careering in science requires complete commitment to their professional lives that then leaves little time for their personal lives. A recent NSF report emphasizes the need for family-friendly policies and calls for organizations "to encourage among their employees a healthy balance between their work and personal lives through flexible, functional workplace policies and attitudes" (National Science Foundation 2000, 58). In order to encourage more girls and young women to pursue science-related careers, it is important for mass media to show how women working in these fields successfully combine work and family.
Future Research
One of the limitations of this study is that the frequency of visits by girls to these Web sites and what, if anything, girls learn from these Web sites cannot be determined through a descriptive analysis. Little is known about the effectiveness of science Web sites for girls in countering existing cultural stereotypes, breaking down long-held, gender schema and, ultimately, narrowing the gender gap in science. Before all this can be determined research needs to examine which Web sites girls visit most often, how they search the Web and search within individual Web sites, and how they process information from the Web.
In order for these sites to have any impact on narrowing the gender gap, girls first need to be aware of and access these Web sites. Most likely, campaigns directed specifically at teachers and parents are most effective in directing girls and young women to thes sites. For example, information about the sites can be conveyed to teachers through established listservs. Mailings can be sent home to parents of teenage daughters informing them about these sites. Further research needs to examine the most effective ways for informing girls and young women about these resources on the Web.
In order to determine the effectiveness of the information on a specific science Web site for girls, more information is needed on how girls search the Web and search individual sites. Audience studies can be conducted to assess girls' Web searching behavior and to determine the most effective communication strategies for generating their interest in information about science and scientific careers.
Further research needs to look at the ways girls and young women process and use information from these sites. Carefully-controlled, long-term studies and surveys can be used to assess the impact of this information on girls interest in science, scientific achievement, awareness of scientific careers, perceptions of science and scientists, and the selection of scientific careers.
Another limitation of this study is that it focused only on Web sites about science for girls. The Web sites included in this study should represent some of the best examples of sites that teach girls and young women about science and the lives of women scientists. Research also should look at science Web sites that are for both girls and boys, including sites created by museums, educational television science programs and other informal science programs.
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Appendix A
Coding Web Sites
Audience
1=Girls
2=Parents
3=Teachers
(List all that apply)
Science Experiments
1=yes
2=no
Biographies
1=yes
2=no
Mentors/Mentoring Activities (online)
Ways to interact with female scientists (email, chats, bulletin boards)
1=yes
2=no
Knowledge-Building Activities (other than experiments)
Ways of giving information about science (fact sheets, quizzes, games, etc_)
1=yes
2=no
(please list)
WWW Links
1=Girls
2=Career
3=Science, Engineering, Technology
4=Women
(List all that apply)
Career Information
1=Yes
2=no
Themes/Disciplines/Field of Study
(List)
Appendix B
Coding Scheme for Biographies
Web Site
Give number of the Web Site
Marital Status
1= Single
2=Single, with romantic attachment (boyfriend, partner)
3=Married
4=Divorced
0=Not mentioned
Children
1=Children mentioned
0=No children mentioned
Professional Status
1=Scientist/Researcher/Engineer/Consultant/Programmer
2=Research Assistant/Technologist
3=Student
4=Administrator
5=Physician/Nurse/Medical Professional/Vet
6=Science Teacher
7=Executive/Management
(CEO, President of Company)
8=other
0=No mention
Discipline
1=Astronomy/Space
2=Biology
3=Chemistry
4=Computer/Computing
5=Engineering
6=Geology/Geoscience
7=Physics
8=Social Sciences
9=Medicine/Health
10=Environmental Science
11=Other
0=No mention
Sexism/Double Standard/Harder (Among Colleagues)
1=yes
0=no mention
Parental Influence
1=yes
0=no mention
Take Math and Science Courses
1=yes
0=no
Race
1=White/Caucasian
2=African American
3=Asian/Indian
4=American Indian
5=Hispanic
6=Not given photo
7=Can not be determined
8=Other
Job Description
1=yes
2=no mention
Educational Background (any level -
high school-grad school)
1=yes
2=no mention
Appendix C
General Description of WWW Sites About Science For Girls
Web Site Name (Date)
Creator/Sponsor
Audience
1. Science is for Girls (1998)
Science is for Girls
Girls
2. Girls Ask Why (2000)
Girl Scouts
Girls
Parents
Teachers
3. Girls and Women in Science Links (1999)
Girls and Women in Science, Beloit College
Girls
Parents
Teachers
4. Rural and Urban Images: Voices of Girls in Science, Mathematics, and Technology
Appalachia Educational Laboratory (AEL)
Girls
Parents
Teachers
5. Portia Web:The Gateway into SET for all Women (1999)
The Portia Project
71 Women's Organizations
Girls
Parents
Teachers
6. Tomorrow's Girl (2001)
Cheryl Hershey
Girls
Parents
Teachers
7. Women Who Walk Through Time (1998)
Dr. Paula N. Wilson University of Utah
NSF
Girls
Parents
Teachers
8. Advocates for Women in Science, Engineering and Mathematics (1999)
AWSEM
Girls
Parents
Teachers
9. Women of NASA (2001)
NASA
Girls
Teachers
10. Against the Odds (2000)
Bigelow Currie Productions
Girls
Teachers
11. Girls Incorporated (2000)
Girls Incorporated
Girls
12. GirlTech (2001)
Cynthia Lanius
Rice University
NSF
Girls
Parents
Teachers
13. Engineer Girl (2001)
National Academy of Sciences
National Academy of Engineering
Girls
14. Plugged-In (2000)
Girl Scouts
Ottawa University
NSF
Girls
Parents
Teachers
15. The Role Model Project for Girls (1999)
Women's Work
Girls
16. The Girl Scientist (2000)
BrainPOP.com
Girls
17. Inventive Women (2000)
Annie Wood
Girls
Parents
Teachers
18. Internet for Girls (1998)
Kids Web - Digital Library for K-12 students
Donna Woodka
Girls
Parents
Teachers
19. Girl Power Locker (2001)
[log in to unmask]
Girls
Parents
Teachers
20. Institute for Women in Trades, Technology and Science (2000)
IWITTS - in progress
Girls
Teachers
21. The Backyard Project (1999)
Garnett Foundation
Girls
22. Remarkable Careers in Oceanography (2000)
Deborah K. Smith, Lori A. Dolby, and Ed Schiele
Woods Hole
NSF
Girls
Parents
Teachers
23. Speak Out!
NSF
Girls
24. Universe Girl (2001)
UniverseGirl.com
Girls
Parents
Teachers
25. By Girls, For Girls (2000)
Smith College
YMCA of Western MA
Girls
26. Autodesk (2001)
Autodesk, Inc.
Girls
27. The Adventure of Josie True (2001)
Mary Flanagan
NSF
Girls
Parents Teachers
Appendix D
Description of Educational Information
Web Site Name (Date)
Science
Experiments
Educational Information (other than experiments)
Links to WWW Sites
1. Science is for Girls (1998)
Yes
Science
Math
Technology
2. Girls Ask Why
Yes
Yes
3. Girls and Women in Science Links (1999)
Careers
Women
4. Rural and Urban Images: Voices of Girls in Science, Mathematics, and Technology
Yes
Yes
Careers
Women
5. Portia Web: The Gateway into SET for all Women
Yes
Science
Careers Women
Math
6. Tomorrow's Girl (2001)
Yes
Science
Girls
Math
7. Women Who Walk Through Time
Yes
Science
Girls
Career
8. Advocates for Women in Science, Engineering and Mathematics (1999)
Yes
Yes
Science
Career
Women Girls
Math
9. Women of NASA (2001)
Yes
Science
10. Against the Odds
Yes
11. Girls Incorporated
Yes
12. GirlTech (2001)
Yes
Science
Math
Technology
Girls
13. Engineer Girl
Yes
Science
Women
14. Plugged-In (2000)
Yes
Yes
15. The Role Model Project for Girls (1999)
Girls
Women
16. The Girl Scientist (2000)
Yes
Yes
17. Inventive Women (2000)
Yes
18. Internet for Girls (1998)
Yes
Girls
Women
Science
Math
19. Girl Power Locker (2001)
Yes
Yes
Science
20. Institute for Women in Trades, Technology and Science (2000)
XXX
21. The Backyard Project (1999)
Career
Education
22. Remarkable Careers in Oceanography (2000)
Science
Education
23. Speak Out!
Science
Girls
24. Universe Girl (2001)
Science
Girls
25. By Girls, For Girls
Yes
26. Autodesk (2001)
Yes
Career
Education
Science
Math
27. The Adventure of Josie True (2001)
Yes
Science
Girls
Appendix E
Vocational Information
Web Site Name (Date)
Career
Information
Biographies
Of Women Scientists
Mentoring Online
1. Science is for Girls (1998)
2. Girls Ask Why
Yes
3. Girls and Women in Science Links (1999)
4. Rural and Urban Images: Voices of Girls in Science, Mathematics, and Technology
5. Portia Web: The Gateway into SET for all Women
Yes
Yes
6. Tomorrow's Girl (2001)
Yes
Yes
7. Women Who Walk Through Time
Yes
Yes
8. Advocates for Women in Science, Engineering and Mathematics (1999)
Yes
9. Women of NASA (2001)
Yes
Yes
10. Against the Odds
Yes
Yes
11. Girls Incorporated
Yes
12. GirlTech (2001)
Yes
Yes
13. Engineer Girl
Yes
Yes
Yes
14. Plugged-In (2000)
15. The Role Model Project for Girls (1999)
Yes
16. The Girl Scientist (2000)
17. Inventive Women (2000)
18. Internet for Girls (1998)
19. Girl Power Locker (2001)
Yes
20. Institute for Women in Trades, Technology and Science (2000)
Yes
Coming soon
21. The Backyard Project (1999)
Yes
Yes
22. Remarkable Careers in Oceanography (2000)
Yes
Yes
23. Speak Out!
Yes
24. Universe Girl (2001)
Yes
Yes
25. By Girls, For Girls
26. Autodesk (2001)
Yes
Yes
27. The Adventure of Josie True (2001)
Science in Cyberspace:
An Analysis of Science Web Sites for Girls
Jocelyn Steinke
Associate Professor
Department of Communication
Western Michigan University
Kalamazoo, MI 49008-3881
616-387-3148
[log in to unmask]
Paper submitted to the
Science Communication Interest Group
Association for Education in Journalism and Mass Communication
Washington, D.C., August 2001
Abstract
Science in Cyberspace:
An Analysis of Science Web Sites for Girls
Jocelyn Steinke
Associate Professor
Department of Communication
Western Michigan University
Kalamazoo, MI 49008-3881
616-387-3148
[log in to unmask]
Girls who have little or no contact with women scientists may develop perceptions about science-related careers based partly on media images of women scientists. This study analyzed the content of 27 science Web sites for girls and examined the themes addressed in 166 biographies of women scientists found on these sites. The findings indicate these sites both teach girls about science and present vocational information about careers in science. The biographies focus on issues considered important in influencing girls' participation in careers in science. These include encouragement from parents, acceptance by male colleagues, and family-friendly workplaces.