Content-Type: text/html Determining Message Objectives: An Analysis of Public Relations Strategy Use in Press Releases Kelly Garnette Page College of Journalism and Communications Weimer Hall University of Florida Gainesville, FL 32611 USA Telephone: (352) 381-9133 E-mail: [log in to unmask] A paper submitted to the Public Relations Division of the Association for Education in Journalism and Mass Communication Determining Message Objectives: An Analysis of Public Relations Strategy Use in Press Releases Abstract This study attempts to identify public relations strategies used in the press releases distributed by organizations. A content analysis of 100 press releases randomly selected from the PRNewswire web site was performed. Results indicate that the taxonomy of public relations strategies proposed by Hazleton (1992) is a valid conceptualization of public relations strategy use in organizations and that these strategies can be identified in the press releases distributed by organizations. Results also indicate that all of the public relations strategies are used in press releases; however, frequency of usage varies. Specifically, the informative strategy is most frequently used in press releases. The persuasive strategy is the second most frequently used strategy, followed by the facilitative and cooperative problem-solving strategies. Promise and reward, threat and punishment, and bargaining strategies are the least frequently used strategies in press releases. Introduction A number of scholars have argued that limited theory-driven research exists for the study of public relations as communication (Grunig & Hunt, 1984; Pavlik & Salmon, 1984; Hazleton and Botan, 1989; Grunig & Grunig, 1989; Pearson, 1990). Rather, as an area of growing academic study and instruction, public relations is a discipline that draws from many areas of the social sciences including psychology, social psychology, sociology and mass communication (Terry, 1987; Botan, 1989; Grunig & Grunig, 1989). Recently, however, there has been a growing commitment to incorporate discipline-specific theory into public relations research. This commitment has produced some promising leads in the search for a positive theory of public relations behavior in organizations. The need for a positive theory of public relations behavior in organizations derives from the importance of predicting outcomes. The increasing awareness and involvement of various publics in organizational behavior demands that organizations and public relations practitioners understand how communication with publics will effect the achievement of organizational goals. Furthermore, organizations and practitioners faced with a rapidly changing environment need a collective way of understanding and talking about public relations. They require a useful taxonomy that describes public relations as strategic communication with predictable outcomes. Such a taxonomy exists within the framework of Hazleton and Long's (1988) Public Relations Process Model. Grounded in systems theory, the model proposes that environmental factors, as well as characteristics of organizations, influence public relations behavior. Hazleton and Long use concepts from communication theory and social change theory to describe public relations behavior as communication strategies used by organizations to communicate with publics. The purpose of this study is to further current theory-driven research in public relations by examining public relations strategy use in organizations. Specifically, this study seeks to identify public relations strategy use in press releases, the most common technique used by public relations practitioners to communicate with publics (Bivins, 1999; Howard & Mathews, 1985; Seitel, 1984). The importance of this study lies in its attempt to merge public relations theory and practice. By applying theory to technique, scholars come closer to understanding how public relations is actually practiced in organizations. Review of Literature Hazleton and Long's (1988) public relations process model provides the theoretical framework for this study. Adopting a general systems theory approach, Hazleton and Long defined public relations as a communication function of management through which organizations adapt to, alter or maintain their environment for the purpose of achieving organizational goals (1985, 1987, 1988). As such, public relations can be conceptualized as an open systems model consisting of a multi-dimensional environment and three subsystems. At the macroscopic level, the environment is the system and public relations input, transformation and output processes are made up of the organization, communication and target audience subsystems. Each of these subsystems, considered microscopically, possesses its own input-transformation-output cycles. A graphical depiction of the public relations process model is included in Appendix A. Specifically, the public relations process consists of "(1) input from the environment (exogenous input) to the system, (2) transformation of inputs into communication goals, objectives, and campaigns, and (3) output, in the form of messages, to target audiences located in internal and external environments. Target audience reactions to public relations messages provide stimuli or further input for organizational maintenance or adaption, refinement of the public relations process, and alteration of the environment in which the organization exists" (p. 80). According to the model, the environment-as a macro-system-provides exogenous input into the three subsystems. Transformation of these inputs into communication goals, objectives and campaigns occurs in the organizational subsystem. Inputs from the environment interact with the organization, impacting organizational goals, structure, acquisition of resources, and management philosophy. For public relations, organizational goals direct behavior and serve as constraints in the decision process (Hazleton & Long, 1988). According to Hazleton (1992), organizational goals serve as criteria, or reference points, for the analysis of inputs. Transformation of these inputs occurs during the public relations decision process and includes problem identification, research and analysis, resources and solution identification. The decision process begins with monitoring environmental and organizational states, while comparing each with organizational goals. Discrepancies lead to the identification of problems. During the solution identification phase of the decision process, appropriate and effective solutions for achieving organizational goals are examined. A solution's efficacy for contributing to organizational goals is the primary criterion in solution selection (Hazleton & Long, 1988). Goals, therefore, significantly impact the transformation of inputs during the public relations decision process. The selection of communication-related solutions to problems defined during the decision process results in a public relations program that is output from the organizational subsystem. The public relations program consists of public relations goals, characteristics of solutions, audience analysis, public relations strategies and practical modes of action. Public relations goals are a consequence of organizational goals derived from the decision process and provide the impetus for organizational goal achievement through communication (Hazleton, 1993). However, goals must be translated into strategies that define appropriate and effective actions for achieving these goals. This is facilitated in two ways. First, characteristics of communication strategies must be examined in order to identify constraints on strategy selection. Second, attributes of publics must be examined in order to select strategies most appropriate to specific audience segments. Thus, characteristics of strategies and attributes of publics are central to the public relations process. This study examines the use of public relations strategies by organizations; therefore, it is important to understand how strategies are defined and used. A communication strategy is a plan of action designed to accomplish a specific objective relevant to a specific situation; therefore, strategies are situational constructs. According to Hazleton, public relations behavior in organizations is enacted through communication strategies designed to achieve organizational goals. Communication strategies are manifested in the form of messages that serve as inputs to target audiences located in the environment. This manifestation occurs in the communication subsystem and is a functional result of the communication process-a process defined by encoding and delivery of messages through the analysis of symbols. Symbols are observable tangible parts of the communication process. Symbols are arbitrary and must be learned before they can be used. In order for communication to be effective, symbols must be shared or at least understood by both source and receiver in the communication process. Thus, symbols are socially constructed objects that take physical form and have predictable outcomes (Hazleton, 1993). Therefore, it is possible to analyze messages as symbolic communication that contain unique physical, psychological and social properties. "Physically, messages are tangible stimuli that can be perceived. Psychologically, meanings attributed to messages by receivers can be specified. Socially, significant others influence individual message evaluation processes" (Hazleton & Long, 1988, p. 85). Hazleton, drawing from social change literature by Zaltman and Duncan (1977), identified six functions of messages at the psychological level that reflect public relations strategies used by organizations when communicating with publics. These functions represent the goals of public relations in terms of the impact messages have on audiences and the meanings audiences attribute to messages. Hazleton (1992) used these six functions to develop a taxonomy of public relations strategies that organizations use when communicating with publics. He labeled the strategies: informative, facilitative, persuasive, threat and punishment, promise and reward, bargaining, and cooperative problem-solving. Informative strategy. An informative strategy is based on the presentation of unbiased facts. Informative messages do not draw conclusions, but instead presume the public will infer appropriate conclusions from accurate data. Informative messages may suggest a variety of alternative solutions to problems. In addition, they are characterized by the use of neutral language and organic, or natural, patterns of organization to create greater ease of comprehension. Because research indicates that time-on-task and frequency of exposure to messages are positively related to learning, informative strategies are most effective when behavioral change within a target public does not have to occur quickly. Zaltman and Duncan (1977) stated that informative strategies can be effective in enhancing problem recognition, therefore they may be used to build a foundation for future learning. However, it may not be desirable to mention a specific solution, especially a controversial one, until a clear need has been established. Informative strategies can be effective in creating awareness of a problem and establishing that a known problem can be resolved. In addition, when an organization does not possess the resources to sustain a needed long-term involvement, an informative strategy alone will not be effective (p. 132). Facilitative strategy. A facilitative strategy is accomplished by making resources available to a public that allow it to act in ways that it is already predisposed to act. Resources may be tangible artifacts, such as tools or money, or they may be directions for accomplishing specific tasks. According to Zaltman and Duncan (1977), facilitative strategies are useful when the public recognizes a problem, agrees remedial action is needed, is open to external assistance, and is willing to engage in self-help. Facilitative strategies are most effective when used with a program that creates awareness among the public of the availability of assistance. In addition, an organization using a facilitative strategy must determine if the continuation of the strategy will require continued resource expenditures after the initial implementation of the change. Persuasive strategy. A persuasive strategy is characterized by appeals to a public's values or emotions. This strategy may include a selective presentation of information. It may use language that is not neutral and reflects the importance of the issue and/or the involvement of the source in the situation. Persuasive messages are directive in the sense that they provide a call for action either tacitly or explicitly. According to Zaltman and Duncan (1977), persuasive strategies are indicated when a problem is not recognized or considered important by a public, or when a particular solution is not perceived to be particularly effective. Persuasive strategies are useful when it is necessary to induce a public to reallocate its resources from one program or activity to an alternative being advocated by the organization. These strategies are often used when an organization does not have direct control over a public through the manipulation of resources valued by the public. In addition, persuasive strategies are useful when time constraints are great and the ability to use power is low (p. 151). Promise and reward strategy. A promise and reward strategy has a coercive function in that it involves the exercise of power to gain compliance. It includes a directive and contingent outcome that may be explicitly or tacitly linked to performance of the directive request. This strategy uses positive coercion in that it implies that the source of the message controls an outcome desired by the receiver of the message. Threat and punishment strategy. A threat and punishment strategy employs negative coercion in that it involves the exercise of power and threat to gain compliance. This strategy includes a directive and contingent outcome that may be explicitly or tacitly linked to performance of the directive request. This strategy implies that the source of the message controls an outcome feared or disliked by the receiver. Both promise and reward and threat and punishment strategies are considered to be coercive techniques because they exercise power to gain compliance. According to Zaltman and Duncan (1977), power strategies are useful when a public's perceived need for change is low. Furthermore, a power strategy will not be effective if a public does not have the resources required to accept change and the organization cannot provide them. But a power strategy may be effective in getting a public to reallocate resources to initiate and sustain change. Power strategies are also useful when there is anticipated resistance to change and a solution to a problem has to be implemented in a short period of time. Bargaining strategy. Bargaining strategies are characterized by an organized exchange of messages between communicators. Strategic withholding of information and deceptions designed to mislead others concerning an acceptable range of alternatives and to discover the other party's acceptable range of alternatives are used. Bargaining communication is characterized by the use of contrasting symbols that differentiate groups, such as 'we' and 'they'. This strategy reflects characteristics similar to Grunig's (1992) two-way asymmetrical model in that organizations and publics are likely to have incompatibility goals and information withholding is a common tactic. Cooperative problem-solving strategy. A cooperative problem-solving strategy reflects a willingness to jointly define problems and solutions to problems. Messages derived from this strategy are characterized by an open exchange of information to establish a common definition of the problem, common goals, and to share positions and responsibilities about the issue. These strategies use inclusive symbols, such as 'we'. This strategy reflects characteristics of Grunig's (1992) two-way symmetrical model in that there is a sense of interdependence among the organization and its publics. Cooperation is effective when the organization and the public feel a need for each others participation in the identification of problems and the development of alternative solutions. Hazleton's taxonomy of public relations strategies provides a conceptualization of public relations behavior that shows equal concern for variables related to the source, message and receiver in the communication process. By viewing public relations strategies as symbolic messages guided by the characteristics of the source as well as attributes of publics, it becomes possible to prescribe strategy usage and predict the effectiveness of strategies in achieving organizational goals. Research suggests that Hazleton's taxonomy of public relations strategies is a valid conceptualization of public relations behavior in organizations. Page (1998) found that practitioners use the strategies defined by Hazleton and that the strategies have unique usage characteristics-organizations use the strategies differently, implementing some more than others and some not at all. Frequency of strategy use results reported by Page (1999) indicate that the informative strategy was used the most often by practitioners in the implementation of public relations campaigns. Specifically, the informative strategy was used 48.8 percent of the time. Practitioners reported using the persuasive strategy 18.8 percent of the time, the cooperative problem-solving strategy 14.6 percent of the time and the facilitative strategy 12.2 percent of the time. The promise and reward strategy was used 4.9 percent of the time and the threat and punishment strategy was used only 1.2 percent of the time. Practitioners responding to Page's study reported no use of the bargaining strategy. These results are somewhat consistent with the results reported by Page and Hazleton (1999), who found that the persuasive strategy was the most frequently used strategy and the informative strategy was the second most frequently used strategy. Page and Hazleton also found that the promise and reward, threat and punishment, and bargaining strategies were the least often used public relations strategies in organizations. This study utilized a repeated measures design, so no data was available on the percentage of strategy use compared to other strategies. Although the results of these studies support Hazleton and Long's conceptualization of public relations behavior in organizations, they were derived from self-reports by public relations practitioners responding to surveys. It may be possible to obtain a more accurate measure of the use of public relations strategies in organizations by examining actual messages distributed by organizations. According to scholars, the press release is the most common technique used by public relations practitioners to communicate with publics (Bivins, 1999; Howard & Mathews, 1985; Seitel, 1984). Howard & Mathews (1985) state that a press release serves as a for-your-information memorandum to an editor about an organizational occurrence. Practitioners send press releases to media outlets in the hopes of having the information contained in the release disseminated to the public. By passing through the media, the information gains credibility and creates greater awareness of the organization-at no cost. Organizations use press releases for a variety of reasons. According to Bivins (1999), the content of a press releases may fall into one of three categories: publicity, product or financial. Publicity releases cover any information occurring within an organization that might have some news value to local, regional or national media. Product releases deal with specific products or product lines and may focus on the product itself, consumer use of the product, or a particular marketing angle. Financial releases report financial information about an organization and are used primarily for shareholder relations. Although press releases are considered to be primarily informative in nature, many editors criticize their often thinly concealed attempts to persuade. In fact, they are often used by organizations to gain publicity rather than to impart information. This review of literature has resulted in three hypotheses: H1: Press releases distributes by organizations use the public relations strategies defined by Hazleton. H2: Informative and persuasive strategies are the most frequently used strategies in press releases. H3: Promise and reward, threat and punishment and bargaining strategies are the least frequently used strategies in press releases. Methodology The purpose of this study is to examine public relations strategy use in organizations. Specifically, this study seeks to identify public relations strategies used in press releases. To accomplish this objective, a content analysis of press releases contained on the PRNewswire web site was performed. The PRNewswire web site is located at web address http:www//prnewswire.com. According to information contained on the organization's web site, PRNewswire is the "world leader in the electronic delivery of news releases and information directly from companies and institutions." The organization was founded 45 years ago and acts as an information subsidy. It has 35 bureaus throughout the world. Press releases contained on the PRNewswire web site were chosen as the population for this study because the organization is deemed a credible source of information by professionals in the media industry and it presents easy access to press releases of all types from organizations of all types. Upon accessing the PRNewswire web site, viewers are presented with a list of "Today's Latest Stories." This continuously updated list includes the top five press releases received by PRNewswire at any given time of day. Press releases were randomly selected from the PRNewswire web site during a two week period from February 21 through March 3, 2000, excluding weekends. To facilitate ease of data collection, four times during the day were selected for data collection: 8 a.m., 12 noon, 5 p.m. and 8 p.m. To complete the random selection process, the two weeks selected for data collection were assigned numbers as follows: week1=1, week 2=2. Next, days of the week were assigned numbers as follows: Monday=1, Tuesday=2, Wednesday=3, Thursday=4, Friday=5. Finally, times chosen for data collection were assigned numbers: 8 a.m.=1, 12 noon=2, 5 p.m.=3 and 8 p.m=4. MicroSoft Excel was then used to randomly generate 20 week/day/time combinations. For each of the 20 times selected for data collection, the researcher accessed the PRNewswire web site and downloaded the top five press releases listed under "Today's Latest Stories." This procedure resulted in a total sample of 100 press releases. The complete press release served as the unit of analysis for this study. Each press release was examined, and nominal level data was collected in nine content categories: week posted, day of week posted, time of day posted, source organization name, source organization location, type of organization, length in paragraphs, type of release and primary public relations strategy used. The first five categories were straightforward as this information is listed on each press release. The type of organization producing each release was coded according to organization types used by Page and Hazleton (1999). These categories were developed by the Public Relations Society of America and are used to categorize the organization's membership. They include the following eight types of organizations: trade/professional association, not-for-profit, public relations firm/advertising agency, corporation, government, education, health care, and other. The length of each release was coded according to the number of paragraphs it contained. The type of press release was coded according to the categories described by Bivins (1999). According to Bivins , the content of a press releases may fall into one of three categories: publicity, product or financial. Publicity releases cover any information occurring within an organization that might have some news value to local, regional or national media. Product releases deal with specific products or product lines and may focus on the product itself, consumer use of the product, or a particular marketing angle. Financial releases report financial information about an organization and are used primarily for shareholder relations. Based on this typology, press releases were coded by type as follows: publicity release=1, product release=2, and financial release=3. Finally, each press release was closely examined to determine the primary public relations strategy used in the release as defined by Hazleton. Table 1 in Appendix B contains the definitions of the seven strategies used to classify press releases in this category. It should be noted that this category was considered mutually exclusive, exhaustive and reliable. It is considered mutually exclusive because, although some press releases may use more than one type of public relations strategy, each press release was defined according to the primary strategy used. The primary strategy was considered to be the overriding objective of the release as reflected in its overall content, theme, vocabulary and wording. This category is considered to be exhaustive in that it includes all of the public relations strategies that are currently used by public relations practitioners. Previous research (Page, 1998) supports this assertion. Similarly, the reliability of the taxonomy of public relations strategies proposed by Hazleton is supported by prior research (Page, 1998; Page & Hazleton, 1999; Page, 1999). Moreover, intercoder reliability was calculated according to Holsti's (1969) formula and produced a score of .80 for the present study. Data gathered from this research were analyzed using SPSS. Results and Conclusions This study attempts to identify public relations strategies used in press releases. Three hypotheses were proposed. H1: Press releases distributes by organizations use the public relations strategies defined by Hazleton. H2: Informative and persuasive strategies are the most frequently used strategies in press releases. H3: Promise and reward, threat and punishment and bargaining strategies are the least frequently used strategies in press releases. To test these hypotheses, a content analysis of press releases randomly selected from the PRNewswire web site was performed. Data were analyzed using SPSS. To test Hypothesis 1, each press release was analyzed to determine the type of public relations strategy used in the release. All of the 100 press releases that were analyzed used one of the seven public relations strategies defined by Hazleton. These findings support Hypothesis 1 and provide further validation of Hazleton's taxonomy. To test Hypotheses 2 and 3, descriptive statistics were performed on the data to obtain frequency of usage scores for each of the strategies. Results indicate that 40 percent (N=40) of the press releases used an informative strategy, making it the most frequently used public relations strategy in this study. The persuasive strategy was used in 34 percent (N=34) of the releases, making it the second most frequently used strategy. The facilitative strategy was used in 11 percent (N=11) of the releases, and the cooperative problem-solving strategy was used in 8 percent (N=8) of the releases. Four percent (N=40) of the releases used a threat and punishment strategy. Two percent (N=2) of the releases used promise and reward, and bargaining was used in one press release. These results support Hypotheses 2 and 3. In addition, the results of this study are consistent with previous research. Table 2 compares the rank orderings of strategy frequency found in this study to the results of research by Page and Hazleton (1999) and Page (1999). This comparison shows that the results of these three studies are fairly consistent; however the results of the present study are most consistent with Page's (1999) results. Differences in frequency orderings may be the result of social desirability bias. Data for both of the previous two studies were obtained from self-reports by public relations practitioners responding to surveys. Social desirability bias may have contributed to over-reporting of the cooperative problem-solving strategy and under-reporting of the threat and punishment strategy. In addition, the increased frequency of usage of the facilitative strategy in the present study may be due to the medium used to gather data. Since the press releases used in this study were distributed over the Internet, it is likely that some organizations use facilitative strategies-such as providing web addresses-more here than they would in press releases distributed in print form. In fact, the Internet may provide an environment more conducive to facilitative strategies in general. Further research in this area is needed. Organization type may also contribute to differences in frequency of strategy use reported in the three studies. For the present study, 76 percent (N=76) of the press releases were distributed by corporations. Four percent (N=4) of the source organizations were government agencies and 4 percent (N=4) were educational institutions. Three percent (N=3) of the press releases came from trade/professional associations and 3 percent (N=3) came from not-for-profit organizations. Health care organizations and public relations firms/advertising agencies each distributed only 2 percent (N=2) of the releases. Six percent (N=6) of the releases were distributed by organizations in the "other" category. Crosstabulations were performed on the data to identify any trends in organization type and strategy use. Results indicate that corporations use informative strategies most often (N=35). Although only two of the press releases analyzed in this study originated from public relations firms and advertising agencies, both of these releases used persuasive strategies. Results reported by Page and Hazleton (1999) were based on a study in which nearly 26 percent of the responding organizations were public relations firms and advertising agencies. This could account for their finding that persuasive strategies were most frequently used. It could be possible that public relations firms and advertising agencies are more likely to use persuasive strategies in the messages they distribute. Another interesting finding of this study is the type of strategies government agencies use. The only use of the bargaining strategy in this sample of press releases came from the Commission on Security and Cooperation in Europe. This release focused on the debate over the plight of the displaced and imprisoned people of Kosovo. The following excerpt illustrates the use of the bargaining strategy. Smith called upon the Clinton Administration to raise the public level of attention to the status of Albanian prisoners of conscience in Serbia and to call upon the Serbian regime to comply with international law and release them. Menzies, speaking for the Clinton Administration, said that "gradually, peace is taking hold, and the resolution of the questions posed by the displaced and imprisoned are important factors in building that peace. The key to the return of all citizens of Kosovo is security...It is difficult for the U.S. Government to directly pressure the Milosevic regime on this issue." Another government agency used a promise and reward strategy. A release from the Pennsylvania Office of the Governor stated the following: This project proves we can create good, family-sustaining jobs and protect our precious natural resources-all at the same time. In just a few years, as many as 5,000 people will work at the Valley View Business Park. And for our children and grandchildren, we have protected a unique Pennsylvania ecosystem. That's why I am so proud to deliver $3 million for this project. These examples illustrate the unique characteristics of communication from governmental agencies to their publics. Future research should examine the communication strategies used by governmental agencies more closely, particularly the attributes of the publics governmental communication is directed to. Finally, the results of this study reveal some interesting information about press releases in general. Press releases used in this study varied in length from one to 21 paragraphs and had an average length of 8.23 paragraphs. Press releases were categorized as publicity, product or financial. Publicity releases made up 60 percent (N=60) of the sample, product releases made up 25 percent (N=25) of the sample and financial releases made up 15 percent (N=15) of the sample. Crosstabulations were performed to identify any trends in press release type and strategy use. Results indicate that publicity releases use informative strategies (N=24) more than any other strategy. In addition, most product releases use persuasive strategies (N=22), and, as may be expected, all of the financial releases used informative strategies (N=15). Discussion This study attempted to identify public relations strategies used in press releases distributed by organizations. A content analysis of 100 press releases randomly selected from the PRNewswire web site was performed. Results indicate that the taxonomy of public relations strategies proposed by Hazleton (1992) is a valid conceptualization of public relations strategy use in organizations and that these strategies can be identified in the press releases distributed by organizations. Results also indicate that all of the public relations strategies are used in press releases; however, frequency of usage varies. Specifically, the informative strategy is most frequently used in press releases. The persuasive strategy is the second most frequently used strategy, followed by the facilitative and cooperative problem-solving strategies. Promise and reward, threat and punishment, and bargaining strategies are the least frequently used strategies in press releases. A primary limitation of this study is that it was confined to the analysis of press releases contained on the PRNewswire web site. Although this methodology facilitated data collection, it may have biased the results of this study. Specifically, Internet technology is not available to all organizations; therefore, the data used in this study does not represent all organizations. The large number of press releases originating from corporations supports this conclusion. Future research might seek to compare the data collected in this study to data gathered from press releases distributed in print form. In addition, future research might employ stratified sampling techniques to obtain a larger number of organizations in each organization type category. Only 24 of the press releases that were examined came from sources other than corporations. In particular, future research should examine government agencies more closely. Despite these limitations, this study succeeded in its attempt to apply theory to technique. 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