Content-Type: text/html Differences in the use of message strategies between_ Differences in the use of message strategies_ Advertising Division Student Paper 2000 AEJMC Convention Differences in the Use of Message Strategies between the U.S. and Korean Television Automobile Commercials Guiohk Lee Doctoral Student College of Communications The University of Tennessee, Knoxville 3700 Sutherland Ave, #G-12 Knoxville, TN 37919 Phone: 423-584-2615 E-mail: [log in to unmask] *An earlier version of this paper was presented at the AEJMC Southeast Regional Colloquium in March 18, 2000. Differences in the Use of Message Strategies between the U.S. and Korean Television Automobile Commercials Abstract The purpose of the present study is to identify the similarities and differences in the use of creative strategies between American and Korean automobile TV commercials. The cultural differences of the two countries provided a basis for the hypotheses in examining the differences in the use of message strategies. The results show that there are statistically significant differences in the degree of informational/transformational strategies and the use of specific message strategies. Differences in the Use of Message Strategies Between the U.S. and Korean Television Automobile Commercials Introduction As the importance of global markets increases, global automobile manufacturers who sell their products on a worldwide basis are faced with the problem of whether and to what extent they should adjust their advertising across countries in the world. Today, ninety percent of the world's top one hundred advertisers are global marketers. For example, General Motors Corp., the top automobile advertiser among global advertisers in the U.S., spent one-third of its advertising dollars on campaigns outside the U.S. in 1997. Also, Toyota Motor Corp., an automobile advertiser with its headquarters in Japan, used 40.4% of its ad budget in the U.S. market (Top 50 global marketers, 1997). Previous studies concerning global advertising had been focused on the debate of standardization or localization of advertising. Recently, the debate seems to be settled with the conclusion that the issue should be considered as a problem of degree, not a problem of choice between the two extreme approaches (Okvisit & Shaw, 1987. Harvey, 1993). However, developing advertising messages to the appropriate degree of standardization or localization can be another complex problem. The selection of creative strategies appropriate for each country is one of complicated problems. For instance, in order to choose effective creative strategies, global car advertisers should consider a lot of factors such as cultures, the stages of economic development, consumer characteristics and market situations of different countries. In spite of the importance of creative strategy as "a guiding approach to a company's promotional communication efforts" (Taylor, 1999) in the development of advertising messages, the topic has been little researched within the context of global advertising. This suggests that at the global level, more research is needed to identify the differences or similarities in the use of creative strategies. Furthermore, at present, no research on the use of creative strategies in Korea, which is an emerging global market, exists. Therefore, the purpose of this study is to identify the similarities and differences in using creative strategies between American and Korean automobile TV commercials. It is expected that the present study that examines which message strategies are preferred in the two countries will give some insight into choosing effective message strategies in each country. Literature Review Cultural Differences between Korea and America Futurologist Herman Kahn has labeled the cultures of East Asian countries as "neo-Confucian"- which is rooted in the teaching of Confucius. Kahn's neo-Confucian hypothesis is that the countries of East Asia, including Japan, South Korea, Taiwan, and Hong Kong, have common cultural roots going far back into Confucian history, and that this cultural inheritance has constituted a competitive advantage for successful business activity. The following are the key principles of Confucian teaching (Hofstede & Bond 1988, p. 8). 1. The solidarity is based on unequal relationships between people. The five basic relationships are ruler/ subject, father/son, older brother/younger brother, husband/wife, and older friend/younger friend. 2. The family is the prototype of all social organizations. A person is not primarily an individual; rather, he or she is a member of a family. 3. Virtuous behavior toward others consists of treating others as one would like to be treated oneself: a basic human benevolence- which, however, does not extend as far as the Christian injunction to love the enemies. 4. Virtue with regard to one's task in life consists of trying to acquire skills and education, working hard, not spending more than necessary, being patient, and persevering. Hofstede and Bond (1988) showed that the Confucian heritage explains one of the main differences between American and Korean culture. They studied how 64 countries selected from the five continents are different in five cultural dimensions including the Confucian heritages. Table 1 highlights the results of Hofstede and Bond's study. While the U.S. and Korea shows dramatic differences in the dimensions of individualism and Confucian dynamism, the two countries are more similar in cultural dimensions such as the power distance and masculinity. Here, we may ask whether their cultural similarities and differences are reflected within the countries' advertisements. For example, if the dimension "individualism" is dominant in America, we can expect that advertising appeals related to "individualism' will be more employed in American advertising. On the other hand, if Confucianism is dominant in Korea, advertising appeals reflecting Confucian values will be more used in Korean advertising. Table 1. Scores on Five Dimensions of the U.S. and Korea Country Power Distance Individual-ism Masculinity Uncertainty Avoidance Confucian Dynamism Index Rank Index Rank Index Rank Index Rank Index Rank Korea 60 27-28 18 43 39 41 85 15-16 75 4 United States 40 38 91 1 62 15 46 43 29 14 Source: Hofstede and Bond 1988 Considering those cultural differences, Han & Shavitt (1994)'s study examined the extent to which a core dimension of cultural variability, individualism-collectivism, is reflected on the type of persuasive appeals that tend to be used and that tend to be effective in different countries. In the content analysis of magazine advertising from the two countries, the study found that magazine advertisements in the United States, an individualistic culture, employed appeals to individual benefits and preferences, personal success, and independence to a greater extent than did advertisements in Korea, a collectivistic culture. Korean advertisements employed appeals emphasizing in-group benefits, harmony, and family integrity to a greater extent than did U.S ads. Also, in a controlled experiment conducted in the two countries, the study demonstrated that in the U.S., advertisements emphasizing individual benefits were more persuasive, and ads emphasizing family or in-group benefits were less persuasive than they were in Korea. Creative strategies Typology of Creative Strategy Creative strategy deals with "what is said" in an advertisement. Creative strategy generally refers to two concepts of main message content and method of presentation. But, recently, researchers (Frazer, 1983: Lasky, Day, & Crask, 1989: Ramaprasad & Hasegawa, 1992b) have tended to distinguish main message from method of presentation or executional factors. Emphasizing main message content, Frazer defined creative strategy as "a policy or guiding principle which specifies the general nature and character of message to be designed" (1983, p.36). Laskey, Day and Crask (1989) and Taylor (1999) used the term "message strategy" to avoid confusions in the use of the term "creative strategy" which implies both message strategy and execution. Several researchers have suggested the typologies of creative strategies (see Table 2). Simon (1971) proposed a set of 10 creative categories, and Shimp (1976) suggested a typology of "message of structure." But, as seen in the Table 2, their typologies included both strategies and tactics and overlapped in some categories. Frazer's (1983) typology was more focused on the main message, rather than executional factors. But Laskey et al. (1989) found that Frazer's typology resulted in low intercoder reliability. For example, based on the Frazer' typology, coders showed the greatest confusion in trying to distinguish between Unique selling proposition and Preemptive strategies, and Brand image and Resonance strategies. Therefore, Laskey et al. developed a new typology based on Frazer's, which contained two overall commercial categories and nine sub-categories. Table 2. Typologies of Creative Strategy Researcher Typology Simon (1971) ù Information ù Argument ù Motivation with psychological appeals ù Repeated assertion ù Command ù Brand familiarization ù Symbolic association ù Imitation ù Obligation ù Habit-starting Shimp (1976) ù Individual-oriented: Celebrity endorser, Typical person endorsers, Spokesperson, Personality. ù Story-oriented: Off-camera sales message, Sales message by performers, Narration. ù Product-oriented: Demonstration, Product display. ù Technique-oriented: Fantasy, Analogy. Frazer (1983) ù Generic ù Preemptive ù Unique selling proposition ù Brand image ù Positioning ù Resonance ù Affective Lasky, Day & Crask (1989) ù Informational advertising: Comparative, Unique selling proposition, Preemptive, Hyperbole, Generic. ù Transformational advertising: User image, Brand image, Use occasion, Generic. Taylor (1999) ù Transmission view: Ration, Acute need, Routine ù Ritual view: Ego, Social, Sensory Most recently, Taylor (1999) proposed a comprehensive message strategy model drawn from the previous theoretical works related to creative strategy. The model first divided advertising strategies into two different views: transmission view and ritual view. The division is similar to the "informational" and "transformational" dichotomy, suggested by Wells (1980) and Laskey et al. (1989). The purpose of advertising operated in the transformational view is to impart, send, transmit or give information to consumers. Advertising using informational strategies provides factual product information about a brand. On the other hand, the purpose of advertising performed in the ritual view is to construct and maintain an ordered, meaningful cultural world where consumers live. Advertising using transformational strategies associates the experience of using a brand with a set of psychological characteristics of consumers and construct a shared meaning of using a brand with consumers. Secondly, in terms of the degree of personal importance by consumers, Taylor proposed six segments of advertising appeals within the division of transmission view and ritual view: Ego, social, and sensory segments in transformational view and ration, acute need, and routine segments in ritual view. In the ego segment, purchase decisions are emotionally and personally important to the consumer and "allow the consumer to make a statement to him/ herself about who he/she is" (Taylor 1999, p. 13). Appropriate advertising appeals are always ego- related. In social segment, products are "used to make a statement to others"(p.13). The advertising appeals are related to gain social approval and to recall and relive social experiences through product consumption. In sensory section, products provides consumers with "moment of pleasure" based on any of the five senses. In routine segment under the transmission view, purchase decisions are made on the basis of rational buying motives but consumers buy according to habit without large amount of deliberation time. Advertising appeals in this segment deal with convenience, ease of use, and product efficacy. In acute need segment, consumers need information to make purchase decisions but time limits the amount of information. The role of advertising in this section is to build brand familiarity and recognition. Finally, in the ration segment, purchase decisions are very important to consumers and consumers seek information as much as they could. The role of advertising is to inform and persuade. Taylor, also, conducted a survey to determine if the six segments actually captured buying decisions and if buying decisions would cluster by product type. Automobiles were suited for the ration segment in which respondents seek much information before buying. Differences in the Use of Creative Strategies by Countries Based on typologies of creative strategy reviewed, several studies examined the differences of using creative strategies by countries. The studies showed that there are some preferred creative strategies according to countries. Reid, Lane, Wenthe, and Smith (1985) assessed whether the creative strategies used by U.S. TV commercials differ from those used by international TV commercials. They analyzed the content of 331 Clio- winning commercials according to Simon's classification and found some differences between U.S. and international Clio-winning commercials. U.S. commercials used psychological appeal strategies more often than international commercials, while international commercials used command strategies and subliminal-oriented strategies more frequently. Also, Zandpour, Chang and Catalano (1992) compared advertising strategies of French, Taiwanese, and U.S. TV commercials, based on the Simon's typology. The results indicated a clear distinction in advertising strategies among the commercials of the three countries. U.S commercials were distinguished by their use of imitation, brand familiarization, and argument. French commercials, on the other hand, tended not to use the imitation strategy and, in sharp contrast with their Taiwanese counterparts, avoided presentation of straight facts. In addition, using the typology of Laskey et al. (1989), Ramaprasad and Hasegawa (1992) analyzed the creative strategies of U.S. and Japanese TV commercials within the standardization/localization debate. No significant association was found between country and overall strategy. However, the relationship between the particular information strategy used and country was significant. More American commercials used comparative and hyperbole strategies, while more Japanese commercials used the USP and preemptive strategies. Taylor, Miracle, and Wilson (1997) investigated the effectiveness of TV commercials with varied levels of information content (high vs. low) in the United States and Korea through experimental methods. They conducted an experiment with cultural differences as a basis for the hypotheses. They hypothesized that differences between the U.S. and Korea along with two cultural dimensions, context and individualism/collectivism, lead to the level of information generally preferred in two countries. The results were consistent with expectations based on those cultural differences: the U.S subjects responded more favorably to commercials with high information levels than did the Korean subjects. Research Hypotheses Based on the literature review related to cultural differences and creative strategy, it is expected that the cultural differences of the two countries will lead to the differences in the use of creative strategies. First, in relation to Taylor, Miracle, and Wilson's study, it is expected that informational strategy of higher level will be used more in American automobile commercials. On the other hand, transformational strategy of higher level will be more used in Korean automobile commercials. H 1: There will be significant differences in degree of using informational and transformational strategies between the two countries. Secondly, putting Hofstede' s study and Taylor's study together, it is hypothesized that ego appeals within the context of individualism will be more employed in American automobile commercials. Also, it is hypothesized that social appeals in relation to Confucianism would be more used in Korean automobile advertising. H 2a: Ego segment strategy will be more frequently used in American automobile commercials. H 2b: Social segment strategy will be more frequently used in Korean automobile commercials. Thirdly, in relation to Taylor (1999)'s study, it is expected that the rational appeal for the information-seeking consumers will be more employed in American automobile commercials. H 3: Ration segment strategy will be more frequently used in American automobile commercials. Method This study employed a content analysis method. Since Kassarjian (1977) had suggested critical guidelines for content analysis in consumer research, the use of content analysis in advertising research has increased. Wheeler (1988, p. 34) indicated that "one technique, which can offer reliable qualitative data on cross-cultural markets, is content analysis." Sample A convenience sample was used for the study. Videotape including automobile television commercials of the U.S. and Korea during the year of 1996 was obtained from the library of the Korean advertising agency Korad, Ogilvy &Mather. The library has collected national television commercials aired in the U.S., Japan and major European countries by month. The tape included 169 commercials, which were composed of 127 American automobile commercials and 42 Korean automobile commercials. There was no significant difference between the two countries in the classes of cars advertised (see Table 3). That is, the two countries seemed to advertise similar classes of cars on TV. Family coupe and sedans were the most common automobile classes (U.S: 25.20 %, Korea: 30.23 %). Also, commercials emphasizing an automobile company, rather than focusing on a brand or a model, accounted for more than 20 % in both the countries. Table 3. Classes of Automobiles Advertised by Country Classes of Automobiles American Commercials Korean commercials Convertibles 1 (0.79) 1 (2.38) Family coupe/sedan 32 (25.20) 13 (30.95) Luxury coupe/sedan/sport sedan 30 (23.62) 4 (9.52) Sports utility 12 (9.45) 6 (14.29) Sports car/coupe/sedan 12 (9.45) 3 (7.14) Compact/full-size pick up 7 (5.51) 1 (2.38) Minivan/full-size van 3 (2.36) 5 (11.90) Station wagon 1 (0.9) 1 (2.38) Company image 29 (22.83) 8 (19.04) Total 127 (100.00) 42(100.00) Note: Chi-square=12.337, prob=0.137 Units of Measurement and Categories of Analysis The study used the term "message strategy," accepting that there is a confusion in using the term "creative strategy." Therefore, main message strategy was defined as the term that focuses on the general nature of the message, rather than various executional options. Laskey et al's (1989) and Taylor's (1999) typologies of message strategy provided a frame of analysis to compare message strategies between U.S and Korea. First, the dichotomy of transmission/informational strategy and ritual/transformational strategy was used in classifying the type of general message strategies. Informational message strategy was defined as the strategy that provides factual product information about a brand and relevant brand data in a clear and logical manner. On the other hand, transformational message strategy was defined as the strategy that associates the experience of using a brand with a set of psychological characteristics of consumers. The message strategy, as a dependent variable, was measured in terms of the degree of using message strategies as follows: 1) Entirely informational 2) Primarily informational and only somewhat transformational 3) Both strategies are evenly mixed 4) Primarily transformational and only somewhat informational 5) Entirely transformational Also, Taylor's six- segment message strategy model was used to identify specific message strategy within the two general strategies. Since sensory, acute need, and routine appeals seem to be rarely used in automobile category, the segments were excluded. Thus, ego, social, ration segments were used as categories for specific message strategies and presence of each appeal was checked. In addition, the countries from which the TV commercials came served as independent variables. Thus, both the independent and dependent variables were categorical. Coding of Commercials Two bilingual coders evaluated the commercials of each country. The two coders are native Koreans, who had lived in the U.S for several years and are fluent in English. The coders were trained to increase their familiarity with coding categories and operational definitions for an hour per day from 20 to 27 November 1999. Ten American and ten Korean automobile commercials, which were recent commercials aired in the two countries in 1998, were used for the coder training The disagreements between the coders were solved by using a third coder who is fluent in both English and Korean, and majority rule was then employed to determine the coding used in analysis. Test of Intercoder Reliability An intercoder reliability test was conducted by using per item agreement method suggested by Kassarjian (1977). As Table 4 shows, the agreement percentage for creative strategies ranged from 70% to 76.7%. Therefore, every figure was within acceptable intercoder reliability ranges suggested by Kassarjian (1977). Table 4. Intercoder Reliability by Per Item Items % of Agreement Degree of using two general message strategies 76.7 Presence of specific message strategies 70.0 Analysis and Treatment of Data The SPSS 9.0 statistical program was used for analysis of the data. Chi-square tests were performed to see the significant differences in relative frequencies by country. In all cases, the 0.05 level of significance was used. Findings and Discussions Degree of using informational and transformational strategy As Table 5 shows, there are statistically significant differences in the degree of using message strategies of automobile commercials between the U.S. and Korea (df = 4, Chi-square = 12.452, prob= 0.014). Therefore, the hypothesis 1 was supported. As it has been expected, in the use of informational strategy, American commercials seem to use 'entirely informational' strategy more frequently than Korean commercials do (U.S 17.32 %, Korea 7.14 %). On the other hand, Korean commercials seem to prefer informational strategy mixed with somewhat transformational factors (U.S. 25.20 %, Korea 42.86%). In the use of transformational strategy, Korean commercials (40.5%) seem to employ 'entirely transformational' strategy more frequently while U.S. commercials seem to use both 'entirely transformational' strategy (28.3%) and 'primarily transformational' strategy mixed with informational factors (23.6%). Table 5. Degree of using message strategy by country America (%) Korea (%) Entirely informational Primarily informational & somewhat transformational Both are evenly mixed Primarily transformational & somewhat informational Entirely transformational 22 (17.3) 32 (25.2) 7 (5.5) 30 (23.6) 36 (28.3) 3 (7.1) 18 (42.9) 4 (9.5) 17 (40.5) Total 127 (100.0) 42 (100.0) Chi-square=12.452, df=4, p=0.014 Table 6. Specific Message strategy by country America (%) Korea (%) Ego Social Ration 22 (17.3)* 81 (63.8) 87 (68.5) 1 (2.4) Chi-square= 5.993, df=1, p=0.014 38 (90.5) Chi-square=10.798, df=1, p=0.01 24 (57.1) Chi-square= 1.807, df=1, p=0.179 *How to read: Since presence of each appeal was coded, 22 (17.3 %) means that 22 commercials of 127 American commercials included ego appeal. Specific message strategy As Table 6 shows, ego segment was more frequently used in American automobile commercials (U. S. 17.3%, Korea 2.4%). The difference was statistically significant and the result supported hypothesis 2a. In the use of social segment, although both American and Korean commercials commonly used it, the use was more dominant in Korean commercials (90.5 %). Therefore, hypothesis 2b was accepted. Finally, more than a half of automobile commercials in the two countries included ration segment, and differences in the use of ration segment were not significant. Therefore, hypothesis 3 was rejected. Putting the results together, it can be concluded that the cultural differences are likely to direct the different uses of creative strategies. Based on the six message strategy model proposed by Taylor (1999), in Korea, automobiles go to the social segment within ritual view, while in America, automobiles go to both the ration segment within transmission view and the social segment within ritual view. Limitations and Managerial Implications While the findings of this study provided a better understanding of similarities and differences between American and Korean automobile commercials and this in turn has implications for both the global advertising issue and cross-cultural advertising research, the significance of the findings in this study is limited by several issues. First, the sample size of advertisements analyzed in the present study was small. Only one year's automobile commercials aired were chosen. Therefore, more commercials need to be researched to generalize the findings of this study. The second limitation is that the coders were selected from only Koreans. Although they are familiar with both English and American lives, they can not exactly repeat the judgments of native Americans, and their cultural bias may intrude in the decision of each coding item. Thus, the employment of American coders may improve the generality of this study. Finally, another limitation was that cultural differences could not be all the reasons of differences and similarities of the two countries' commercials. The reasons can come from different market situations or distribution systems. For example, there are no dealer systems to distribute cars in Korea. Korean people usually obtain specific information about the automobiles that they intend to buy through car salesmen who represent their automobile company. Therefore automobile advertising in Korea does not need to deliver much information than that in America. This difference could be attributable to the differences of commercials in the two countries. Despite these limitations, the findings of this study have some implications related to the global advertising issue and cross-cultural advertising research. It is difficult for marketers in the U.S. and other western countries to know the norms of advertising in various product categories in other cultures. While the present study cannot attest to the effectiveness of using specific message strategy in Korean car advertising, U.S. car manufacturers can use the results of the present study to understand the general ways in which cars are presented to the Korean public via television commercials. An understanding of the cultural differences employed, when talking to the Korean public about automobiles, may help the foreign makers become more sensitive to the Korean culture in creating selling messages. Also, foreign manufacturers may benefit from the study's finding of the common use of "social" appeal as a way of enhancing the benefit of owning a car. List of References Frazer, C. F. (1983). Creative strategy: A management perspective, Journal of Advertising 12 (4), 36-41. Han, S., & Shavitt, S. (1994). Persuasion and culture: Advertising appeal in individualistic and collectivistic societies, Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 30, 326-350. Harvey, M. G. (1993). Point of view: A model to determine standardization of the advertising process in international market, Journal of Advertising Research 33 (7), 57-64. Hite, R. E. & Frager, C. (1988). International advertising strategies of multinational corporations, Journal of Advertising Research 28, 9-17. Hofstede, G. 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Becoming a consumer society: A longitudinal and cross-cultural content analysis of print ads from Hong Kong, the People's Republic of China, ands Taiwan, Journal of Consumer Research 15. 457-472. Whitelock, J. & Chung D. (1989). Cross-cultural advertising: An empirical study, International Journal of Advertising 8, 291-310. Zandpour. F., Chang, C. & Catalano. J. (1992). Stories, symbols and straight talk: A comparative analysis of French, Taiwanese, and U.S TV commercials. Journal of Advertising Research, Jan/Feb, 25-38. Appendix I. Coding Framework Definition Transformational strategy: ù Associates the experience of using a brand with a set of psychological characteristic. ù Focuses on the users of a brand and their life style, focuses on developing a brand image. Ego segment- owning a brand car reinforces and enhances consumers' self-images and allow the consumer to make a statement to him/herself about who he/she is. . Social segment- owning a brand a car allows to being noticed, gain social approval, and make a statement to others. Informational strategy: ù Provides with factual product information about a brand or a company ù Provides with relevant brand data in a clear and logical manner. ù Show competing brands, focuses on claims of uniqueness, and provides nature of brands. Ration segment: consumers have information need of high level the role of ads is to inform. Coding category ù Degree of Informational/ Transformational (Check only one) 1. Entirely informational 2. Primarily informational and somewhat transformational 3. Both strategies are evenly mixed 4. Primarily transformational and somewhat informational 5. Entirely transformational ù Specific Message Strategy (Check as many as possible) 1. Ego 2. Social 3. Ration