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A Study of the Facets of the "Country-of-Origin" Image and Its Comparison among
Different Countries
A Study of the Facets of the "Country-of-Origin" Image and Its Comparison among
Different Countries
HWANG, JANG-SUN
(Master Candidate)
Department of Advertising
476 Communications Building
University of Tennessee - Knoxville
Knoxville, TN 37996
(423) 974-3048
2521 Kingston Pike #2004
Knoxville, TN 37919
(423) 521-6881
[log in to unmask]
AEJMC 1999 Conference
Advertising Research Division
ABSTRACT
"Country-of-Origin" image is an important factor, which affects consumers'
evaluations of foreign products in the international marketplaces. This study
aims to compare the CO images of three countries - Japan, South Korea and India
- having different levels of economic developments, and to explore the
components of CO image. It examines the three CO facets of each country and
their interrelationships. Additionally, it is observed if CO effects vary by the
patriotism, a critical factor affecting CO.
Introduction
Introducing the Question
Global marketing has been prevailed during the last couple of decades in the
world. It resulted from the discontinuous changes of the market environment. Due
to the rapid development of technology, especially in the communication area,
the global market has been emerged. In particular, most product marketers are
affected by the actions of the competitors from various countries. A variety of
products from many different countries compete with one another in every market
in the world. Consumers choose what they want among those products from many
countries. Nowadays, most companies cannot help struggling against the
high-quality competitors, which originated from many countries. It is critical
for them to assess consumers' perceptions of product characteristics and
surrounding images influencing purchase decisions. Consumers evaluate competing
products by many criteria. "Country-of-Origin (CO)" is one of those criteria,
and is a potentially powerful image variable that can be used to gain
competitive advantage in the international market.1 The "Made-In" notion is a
matter of tremendous importance in international marketing strategy.2
Consumers have been more likely to evaluate the brand not by the physical
quality of the brand, but by the psychological satisfaction acquired by
purchasing the brand than before. Therefore, the brand image has been more
important as much as the product quality. It might be getting more crucial as
there are few differences among the high ranked brands in the world in terms of
the physical quality. Consequently, the brand image and its variables such as
the "Country-of-Origin (CO)" image have been emphasized.
While companies from some advanced countries have taken advantage of the
positive images of their home countries, most companies from developing
countries are suffering from the inferior and negative images of their
countries. In fact, specific branded and non-branded products imported from
industrialized countries usually receive favorable identification; while
products imported from less developing countries do not.
This study basically assumes that consumer attitudes and behaviors are affected
by CO images in many cases of the international marketing.
This study plans to explore which components consist of the overall CO image,
and one of which are the most influential on the consumer behavior. By examining
the factors consisting of the CO image, it would be possible to suggest the
managerial implications for the company planning to launch and market their
brands in the global marketplace. Furthermore, as the necessity of the
advertising to improve the CO image has been emphasized, general strategies for
the advertising would be suggested. Especially, this study concentrates on the
case of less developed or developing countries and their unknown brands in the
foreign market.
To explore the components and their explanatory power effectively, it is planned
to find any correlation of the CO image and its components, and compare three
countries, which are recognized differently in terms of the degree of the
economic development. Therefore, it would be recommended how each country can
take appropriate advertising strategy to camouflage their weaknesses and to
enhance their strengths.
OVERVIEW ON THE "COUNTRY-OF-ORIGIN"
The researches exploring the effect of the country image have been performed
since 1960s. Based on several prominent studies, several integrated concepts
related to the country-of-origin effects would be explored within the boundary
of this study: the components or aspects of CO image and its influences. Most of
all, it would be helpful for setting up the problem clearly and solving it to
overview the concept of the country image with the origin-of-effect.
Definition of Country of Origin Image/ Effect
The country image is referred to the "Country-of-Origin" image in this study as
many previous researches. There are several definitions of country-of-origin
effect or image. Following descriptions are frequently referred by other CO
studies.
y The picture, the reputation, the stereotype that businessmen and consumers
attach to products of a specific country. This image is created by such
variables as representative products, national characteristics, economic and
political background, history, and traditions.3
y Buyers' opinions regarding the relative qualities of goods and services
produced in various countries.4
y How consumers perceive products emanating from a particular country.5
To be summarized, the CO means an overall image of a country, which influence on
the product image, since the product was produced or originated in that country.
An important concept reminds that CO would be determined according to the
perception of the consumer. Therefore, if consumers perceive a product as a
representative of the U.S., in spite of it was made or assembled in outside of
U.S., the product would be accompanied with the CO image of the U.S. In fact, in
this worldwide era, many brands are manufactured abroad rather than the country
it originated. Liebler reported that the U.S. consumers are likely to perceive
the Japanese automobiles, which are manufactured in the U.S. territory, as
Japanese products.6 Another study, which is related to the taxonomy of the CO
image, supported this argument.7 "Made-in-Country," where a product was made, is
not important factor in this contemporary market environment any more.
Otherwise, "Origin Country," which a country would be associated with a product,
would be the most crucial factor. It really functions as an abstract image
itself. Briefly, the "origin country" is more related to the CO image than
"made-in" country.
The Components of the Overall CO Image
Many studies have assessed CO images. It has been reported that there are quite
a many components consisting of CO image. Putting various reports together, it
can be arranged that CO images have three facets: "General Country Attributes,"
"General Product Attributes," and "Specific Product Attributes."8 These three
facets of the CO image are categorized according to the different dimensions,
which influence the consumers' purchase decision. The overall CO image can be
evaluated by examining and purifying these three facets, which was first
articulated by Yaprak and Parameswaran in 1986.9
First, CO images affecting purchase and consumption behaviors have been related
to the characteristics of the origin country and its people, the "General
Country Attributes (GCA)."10 It has been demonstrated that consumers'
willingness to purchase a product is related to the economic, political, and
cultural characteristics of the country a product originated. Additionally, CO
images are affected by the consumer's perception of similarity between his or
her won country's and the origin country's various aspects such as cultural,
political, and belief system.11
Second, CO effects have been frequently related to perceptions about the overall
product offerings of a particular origin country. Papadopoulos and his
colleagues noted that a consumer's attitude toward an unfamiliar country may
well be based on knowledge about their capacity for producing quality products
in general.12 This perception also affects the consumer's evaluation of specific
products from that country. This factor, "General Product Attributes (GPA)," can
be the second facet of the CO image.
The last facet is the "Specific Product Attributes (SPA)." Bilkey and Nes
criticized single-cue studies and hypothesized that behavioral attributes are
affected by GCA and GPA as well as by specific product attributes.13 This facet
includes product, marketing, and firm-goodwill attributes. The influence of CO
image may vary depending on what the specific product is. Therefore, the
components of SPA are different from a product to a product. For example, in the
evaluation of automobile, the "good fuel economy" would be one of the most
important attributes. However, other products cannot be evaluated by this
specific attribute. That is the reason why SPA should be considered as one facet
of the CO image.
CO Effects on Consumers' Purchase Decisions
Consumers are more likely to use a subjective or emotional criteria in the way
of deciding if product would be the most appropriate for their demands. Often,
as was noted, rational, physical and objective criteria like price, product
quality or distribution factors are less importantly considered in the process
of purchase decision than image variables. Surely, this inclination is resulted
from the fact that most consumers have little information about the product,
which they are going to buy. Moreover, there are numerous brands in the global
marketplace, and they sell quite similar products in a same product category.
The competition among the brands is getting fiercer.
Consumers may hardly have any knowledge about the inherent quality of a product;
therefore, they cannot help evaluating the product with limited cues, which
implies the quality of the product. The country-of-origin image might be
appropriate for one of those cues. Especially, it influences very much in the
case of the product about which consumers can hardly get the information.
Moreover, consumers are unwilling to spend their precious time in seeking the
information about a product. Recently, more and more foreign products can be
provided to consumers throughout the world, but consumers can rarely get the
information about the foreign product rather than the domestic products.
Consequently, the CO image would be one of the most affective factors in the
purchasing decision. When a consumer decides to purchase a foreign product as an
alternative, he/she can evaluate the product with the attitudes toward the
foreign country, which the product originated. Therefore, the product of a
country having negative images can be evaluated negatively, while the product of
the other country possessing a positive image would be evaluated positively.
Surely, there are quite a few intervening factors in the process of consumer
behavior. Therefore, only CO image can hardly explain the reason why consumers
have preferable attitudes toward a certain foreign product. Nevertheless, due to
the rapid changes in the international market environment, the distinction
between domestic products and foreign ones would be more ambiguous; in fact,
dividing product into the two categories is not meaningless any more.
Although there are several critical factors as well as the three facets, which
addressed previously, it can be referred that the three facets are the most
fundamental attributes of the CO image. Therefore, this study focuses on these
three facets and its individual components.
Methodology
Through the previous studies regarding CO image, this study, as previously
addressed, plans to explore the components of CO image and its influences on
consumers' evaluations of products.
Research Scheme and its Questions
This study mainly evaluates the three facets of CO image, which can influence on
the purchase decision. Those are "General Country Attributes (GCA)," "General
Product Attributes (GPA)," and "Specific Product Attributes (SPA)" as reviewed
before. It is examined which factors are the most correlated to the overall CO
image and the intention to purchase in each facet. Additionally, "Patriotism"
and "Gender" would be meaningful variables, which can operate differently in
evaluating the CO image and the purchase intentions for the foreign products.
The objective countries were selected according to the income level of the
country. As Nes and Bilkey reported, Japan, South Korea, and India are
categorized into three different countries in terms of the economic development.
Japan is categorized as higher-income country, while South Korea and India are
done as a middle-income one and a low-income country, respectively.14 In fact,
India as well as China can be evaluated as one of the most well known country
among many low-income countries. Those three countries' CO images are evaluated
in this study. Within this research scheme, following research questions are
raised in this study below.
1. Are there significant differences of purchase intention among the products of
the three countries?
2. Are there significant differences among the attitudes toward Japan, Korea,
and India in terms of the components of CO image?
3. Are there significant correlation of the intention to purchase the product
from the three countries and other general components of the "General Country
Attributes (GCA)" and "General Product Attributes (GPA)?" How is different in
the case of each country?
4. Are there significant correlation of the intention to purchase the products
from the three countries and other general components of the "General Country
Attributes (GCA)" and "Specific Product Attributes (SPA)?" How is different in
the case of each country?
5. Are there any significant differences of evaluations of the components of the
CO image and the intention to purchase between genders?
6. Are there any significant differences of evaluation the components of the CO
image and the intention to purchase among the peoples who have different extent
of patriotism?
Variables and Measurement
In this study, each facet of CO image is measured by evaluating the components
of each, and by examining the correlation of the representative value of each
facet and its components. Each facet includes several components, which can
consist of the overall value of each facet. Therefore, it would be explored
which components are the most correlated to the representative value in each
facet. All questions asking the degree of the intention to purchase are
constructed with 7-point Likert scale. All variables measured are described in
<Table A> as below.
<Table A>
The Variables Measured and Its Components
Category
Description
GCA (General Country Attribute)
y The development of politics
y The development of economy
y The advances of culture
y The similarity of the country with the U.S.
y The degree of education
y The friendliness of the citizens
GPA (General Product Attribute)
y Innovativeness
y Design
y Prestige
y Workmanship
SPA (Specific Product Attribute)
Home Computer
y Performance
y Design
y Satisfaction with the price
y Reliability
Patriotism
y 7 Point Scale:
1-2 (Weak), (3-5) Moderate, (6-7)Strong
Intention to Purchase the Products from each Country
y 7 Point Scale
Intention to Purchase the Home Computer from each Country
y 7 Point Scale
To explore the SPA facet, it is necessary to choose a specific product. In this
study, "Home Computer" was selected. The reason why "Home Computer" was chosen
as the objective product is that "Home Computer" is relatively unknown product
as the three countries' export article. To explore the CO image effectively, the
item should not remind people some established brand. Only Japan is selling this
item, "Home Computer." in the U.S. market. However, their computer brands have
been known recently. Therefore, it can be evaluated that their brand image has
not firmly established yet. When considering automobiles or electronics, Japan
has established their excellent brand image in those markets with Honda, Toyota,
Sony, Toshiba, and so on. If selecting those items, the pure CO image can hardly
be examined, for the individual brand images can overcome or undermine the CO
image. Moreover, "Computer" is one of the familiar items to college students,
the sample of this study.
Additionally, high-risk products would be preferred to explore the CO image, for
ignorance of the country originated is prevailed when purchasing the low-risk
products. Moreover, the computer is one of the main items, which target the
college students.
With these variables, the survey tool, the questionnaire, was designed for
e-mail survey. As shown in <Appendix A>, to increase the response rate, the
subject title was named as "Help Me! It takes only 3 minutes," and asked
respondents to type "R" for reply and "Y" for including the questionnaire when
asking whether they included the original message, the questionnaire.
Survey Design and Analysis Methods
To explore the research questions raised above, it needs to determine which
analysis methods would be used. <Table B> shows the statistical methodologies,
which are used to explore each research question (RQ).
< Table B > - Analysis Methods
Description of Analysis
Statistical Methods
RQ 1
Comparison of the intentions to purchase the general products from the three
countries
ANOVA
RQ 2
Comparison of the components of CO image among the three countries
ANOVA
RQ 3
Correlation of the intention to purchase the general products and other
components of CO image in each country.
Correlation
RQ 4
Correlation of the intention to purchase the home computers and other components
of
CO image in each country.
Correlation
RQ 5
Gender differences
t-Test
RQ 6
Patriotism differences
ANOVA (if applicable), otherwise t-Test
The main analysis is correlation, which is shown in <Figure A>. It depicts how
the three kinds of CO image components - GCA, GPA, SPA- are correlated to the
intention to purchase the products from each country.
<Figure A> The variables analyzed by correlation
Intention to Purchase the General Product from each Country
Intention to Purchase the Home Computer from each Country
GPA
of each Country
GCA
of each Country
SPA
of each Country
Sampling
The survey was conducted by using e-mail method. The sample frame was
"University of Tennessee, Knoxville Student Directory for 1998 and 1999." It
includes all registered students from freshmen to graduate students, with their
e-mail addresses. The questionnaires were sent to them through the college's
UNIX system.
The samples were gathered by systematic sampling method, selecting each sample
with equal intervals. In detail, the sampling began from the fifth page of the
directory. The interval was also five. That is to say, the samples selected are
students whose names are on the fifth, tenth, fifteenth, and so on in every
fifth page. In the case of no e-mail address in the selected student column, the
next available sample was taken as the alternative.
In order to make the number of male and female equal, the first names of
students were considered. However, this method is somewhat limited due to
several exceptions. To camouflage this limitation, it is conducted that the
responds from both genders were ignored from the 26th sample to make the number
of them to be equal.
Results and Analysis
As a result of running the survey designed in previous section, each research
questions were explored. Before analyzing the data regarding of the research
questions, it is necessary to represent the sample profile. Six research areas
would be followed. All tables referred in this section are shown in Appendices.
Sample Profile
The number of sample used in this study was 50 (male=25 / female=25). Totally,
250 pre-samples were selected, and e-mail questionnaires were sent to them. The
number of samples gathered from the survey was 62 (male=37 / female=25) by two
days after sending the e-mails. The response rate is 24.8%. The 17 samples that
returned late than other 25 e-mails were ignored to make the number of male and
female samples equal.
The majority of them (40%) were graduate students followed by junior students
(24%). Others are equal as 12% respectively. In the evaluation of their
patriotism, none responded as weak patriotic, which was categorized as 1 and 2
in 7 point scale. Most students evaluated their patriotism as moderate (56%) or
strong (44%).
Intention to Purchase the Products from the Three Countries
The intention to purchase is the most important variable among all variables
used in this study, for it is the closest one to actual purchase behavior, and
the most developed variable, which can be reached by the advertising effort. The
evaluation of intention to purchase the products from each country was conducted
to find whether there are any differences among the influences of three
countries' CO image on product evaluations. As shown in <Table 1> in Appendix B,
it was evaluated that students are more likely to purchase the Japanese product
(mean=4.96) than the products from other two countries, S. Korea and India as
the means of 4.04 and 3.60, respectively.
Evaluation of all CO Image Components of the Three Countries
The CO image was consisted of three facets as previously referred. In order to
the differences of the general components consisting of GCA and GPA, each
component of three countries was compared.
As shown in <Table 1>, most variables showed significant differences among the
three countries. All variables referred that Japan is considerably superior to
other two countries. Additionally, several variables showed that S Korea is
superior to India. Those are "the development of economy," "the degree of
education," "prestige," and "workmanship." These variables are closely related
to the income level. It can be inferred that income level of each country
influences the overall CO image and its components. However, two aspects did not
show any significant differences among the countries. Those are "the advances of
culture," and "the friendliness of the citizens." These are regarded as the
variables, which are not closely related to the income level, the economic
aspect. In fact, the development of economy" showed the significant differences
among all three countries, due to the fact that it is the closest variable to
the income level. Especially the mean of Japanese development of economy, 6.28,
was the highest one among all variables used in this study. In this aspect, the
means of S Korea and India (4.44 / 2/68) are considerably lower than Japan.
Correlation of the "Intention to Purchase" General Products and CO Facets
The intention to purchase the product from the three countries was compared in
RQ 1 section. Furthermore, it is necessary to analyze which components are the
most correlated to this variable. As shown in <Table 2>, this analysis was
separately done by the country.
First, in the case of Japan, seven components are significantly correlated to
the intention to purchase the Japanese product. Those are "prestige (R= .776),"
"workmanship (.561)," "the development of economy (.458)," "design (.415)," "
innovativeness (.380)," and "the similarity with the U.S. (.302)" as referred in
<Table 2>. It can be inferred that these aspects of CO image are considerably
correlated to the intention to purchase Japanese products in the U.S. market.
Second, it was proved that more components are significantly correlated to the
intention to purchase the Korean products. Most of the components showed the
significant correlation except "friendliness of the citizen," "the development
of politics," and "awareness of Korea." Surprisingly, the awareness of the Korea
is not correlated to the overall evaluation of the Korean products in terms of
the intention to purchase. The most highly correlated variables are "prestige
(R= .583)," "workmanship (.558)," "innovativeness (.554)," and so on.
India showed a light correlation of the "intention to purchase" and variables of
CO facets. In fact, like the previous two countries, most GCA components showed
to be significantly correlated to the "intention to purchase" Indian products.
Only two GPA variables were significantly correlated to that: "the awareness of
India (R= .372)," "the advances of culture (.310)."
Correlation of the Intention to Purchase the PC and CO Facets
The evaluation of the "intention to purchase" a specific product, "Home
Computer," is conducted in same way as the evaluation of "general products," by
examining the correlation with seven GCA variables and four SPA variables. As
shown in <Table 1>, the intention to purchase PC showed significant differences
among three countries. Japan was also the highest ranked followed by Korea and
India (mean = 4.92 / 3.60 / 2.12).
In the case of Japan computer, unlike the previous case (the general product),
only four variables showed the significant correlation with the overall
attitudes, the "intention to purchase" PC. All of them are the components of
SPA. That is to say, the general CO image was not correlated to the intention to
purchase the Japanese computer. "PC design (R = .845)," "reliability of PC
(.838)," "performance of PC (.716)," and "satisfaction with PC price (.522)"
showed considerably high correlation with the intention to purchase. Other
components of GCA such as "development of economy," and "the similarity with the
U.S." were not significantly correlated.
The case of Korean computer showed somewhat different results. The intention to
purchase Korean computers was significantly correlated to several general
components of CO image as well as specific components. Four GCA components
showed the significant correlation. Those were "the development of economy (R=
.438)" "the education level (.412)," "friendliness of the citizens (.349)," and
"the advances of culture (.307)." Surely, the four specific components showed
relatively higher correlation with the overall attitude like the case of
Japanese computer.
The case of Korean computer showed that the overall attitudes were significantly
more correlated to the general components than Japanese computer case. This
trend was getting more intense in the case of India computer. Only two specific
components were significantly correlated to the overall attitude: "reliability
of PC (R=.373)," and "PC design (.317)." The most differentiated characteristic
of this case was that most variables showed negative correlation. The all seven
GCA variables showed negative and significant correlation. "Culture" and
"Friendliness" aspects showed the higher correlation. On the contrary, these
variables were not correlated to the case of Japanese computer.
The Gender Differences
The analysis of gender differences was applied to most components consisting of
CO image in each country. All seven GCA, four GPA, and four SPA components as
well as the overall attitude toward the general product and specific product,
PC, were analyzed. Overall, males showed significantly positive attitudes toward
several aspects of CO image rather than females did. However, there are some
different trends among the three countries. The gender differences are shown in
<Table 4-1,2,3>.
First, in the case of Japan, males had more positive attitudes toward
"politics," "economy," "culture," "friendliness," "workmanship" than females.
Most GPA and SPA components were not shown the significant differences between
the genders. Therefore, it can be regarded as the fact that males are more
positive to the general attributes of the country, Japan, itself.
In the case of Korea, they showed significant differences in more aspects than
Japan case. <Table 4-2> refers that five GCA variables, two GPA variables, and
all four variables showed significant differences between the genders. Males
also showed significantly positive attitudes toward the intention to purchase
the general product than females (mean = 4.56 - 3.52). However, they did not
showed any significant differences in the "intention to purchase" Korean PC.
Overall, it was proved that males have more positive attitudes toward Korea and
Korean products than females in most aspects.
A different trend can be found in the case of India. Overall, like other two
countries, males are more likely to prefer India and Indian products than
females. However, as shown in <Table 4-3>, this phenomenon was reversed in the
evaluations of the GPA components. In fact, females are more likely to prefer
the "design (mean = 3.88)" and "innovativeness (mean = 4.04)" of Indian products
than males as means of 3.00 and 2.84, respectively. Naturally, females
considerably prefer Indian products in terms of "intention to purchase" them as
the mean of 4.08, while males are somewhat unwilling to purchase the products
(mean = 3.12). This trend is also applied to the intention to purchase the
Indian computer; in fact, females showed higher preferences as the mean of 2.64
than males (mean = 1.60).
The Patriotism Differences
The analysis of patriotism differences was also applied to most components
consisting of CO image in each country like the previous case, gender
differences. As previously analyzed, none responded that they had weak
patriotism as checking on 1 or 2 point in 7 point scale (1 - Not strongly
patriotic / 7 - Strongly patriotic). Therefore, t-test was used instead of
ANOVA. The group was divided into two as "Moderately patriotic" and "Strongly
patriotic." Overall, there are a few variables, which showed the significant
differences between "Moderate" and "Strong" groups in all countries. All results
are shown in <Table 5-1,2,3>.
In the case of Japan, as shown in <Table 5-1>, only five variables showed
significant differences between the two different groups in terms of patriotism.
Four were GPA variables and one was the "economy" aspect. Strange to say,
students who are strongly patriotic are more likely to evaluate highly Japan's
economy. It is same in the GPA four variables, which showed significant
differences. Briefly, the stronger the patriotism is, the more preferable
evaluation of the Japanese CO image they have.
In the case of Korea showed different results. The two groups evaluated the
Korean CO image significantly different in various aspects. Even though, five
variables were differently evaluated, those are from all three facets. In fact,
two of GCA, one of GPA, and two of SPA were shown significant differences. In
only one aspect, "the development of politics," the "moderate" group was proved
to prefer the Korea rather than "strong" group. Detailed information in given in
<Table 5-2>.
In the evaluation of Indian CO image, the two different groups showed
significant differences in only two aspects: "prestige" of GPA and "performance"
of SPA. Both of them referred that students having stronger patriotism are more
likely to be positive toward India in terms of "prestige" and "innovativeness."
Discussion and Managerial Implications
With the results of this study, several critical implications would be inferred
to suggest the brand management of the company from a variety of countries in
the U.S. market.
According to the results, the high-income country, Japan, has considerably
superior image than other middle or low-income countries in terms of the overall
attitudes as well as all components of CO image. This can be inferred that
several advanced countries dominate the global market in terms of the consumers'
mind. The positioning theory suggested that entering into the evoked set is the
most important objective of every brand. The evoked set is quite limited, so
consumers can hardly memorize a variety of brands. As previously noted, the
country can operate as the brand in the global marketplace. Consequently,
consumers usually remind only several well-known and advanced countries when
determining the purchase. Other countries are likely to be forgotten or ignored.
This result implies that the brand from under developed countries should make
the efforts to enhance the awareness of their countries.
Although the purchase decision proved to be correlated to the most general
product attributes rather than general country attributes; however, it varies by
countries which aspects or components should be reinforced. In the case of
high-income country, the direct aspects, the general product attributes such as
design, workmanship and prestige are highly correlated to the intention to
purchase. While in the cases of middle or low-income countries, those aspects
are somewhat highly correlated to the overall attitudes. It can be inferred that
the brands from under developed countries should enhance their specific
attributes. Because the preference of the general product aspects is somewhat
not highly correlated to the overall preferences, the intention to purchase
would be lower than the case of high-income country. This trend is getting more
prevailed in lower income country rather than middle-income country. In the case
of low-income country, the general product attributes are considerably
correlated the intention to purchase the products from the country. It implies
that the low preferences of the CO image can be much explained by the low
evaluation of each product attribute. Although the country itself can be
preferred, the products of the country can hardly preferred because of the
negative image of the general product attributes. In fact, a general country
attribute of India, cultural aspect, was highly evaluated. However, it can be
assumed that the preference of the Indian culture stems from the well-known
Indian advanced culture.
In the case of a specific product, home computer, even the results and
implications might be limited to this specific product, Japanese computers
proved to be highly evaluated because of the each aspect of the computer. In
fact, its reliability, design, and performance were highly correlated to the
overall preferences toward the Japanese computer. The less a country developed,
the less the specific product attributes are correlated to the overall
preference toward the computer from the country. In the case of India, most
general country attributes are negatively correlated to the intention to
purchase the Indian computer. Other specific attributes are slightly correlated
to that. Consequently, it can be inferred that the Indian computer, even it does
not exist, has not formed the typical image. In fact, the intention to purchase
Indian computer showed the second lowest preferences among all aspects of CO
image.
Overall, the brand from a low-income country is usually not preferred in terms
of the intention to purchase. It stems from several reasons. Those are the low
preferences of the most general and specific product attributes. Therefore,
several strategic recommendations would be induced. The brands from under
developed countries should make some efforts to enhance the image of specific
product category attributes, then it would be necessary to accompany the
reinforcing the image of the general products attributes. However, the specific
product attribute, which should be improved, depends on what the product
category is.
From the analysis of the gender differences, overall, males are more preferable
to the foreign countries and their products than females are. Although there
were a few exceptions, which showed the relative preferences of females toward
the foreign countries and products, the majority of CO attributes showing the
significant differences imply that females are relatively unfavorable to foreign
countries. Especially, the general country attributes such as politics, culture,
friendliness and so on are relatively more preferred by males in high-income
country. These values are somewhat fundamental, while others are more specific.
Consequently, males have the firmly favorable attitudes toward the foreign
countries. Overall, CO images can be improved with implementing females'
unfavorable attitudes and reinforcing males' favorable ones.
In regarding of the patriotism, it was found that the level of patriotism was
not related to the degree of the preference toward foreign countries in general.
However, in the case of South Korea, strongly patriotic people are more likely
to prefer this country and its products than people whose are moderate
patriotic.
On the whole, less developed countries should improve their CO image, and the
companies from those kinds of countries have to improve the various values of
the product category and their brands' attributes in order to increase their
product sales. Although the advanced countries should also try to improve their
CO image, the necessity of strategy for enhancing the CO image and its facets is
more required for less developed countries and their brands with the effective
marketing communication activities.
This study has several limitations. Like most previous studies, it adopted the
"single-cue" study, which did not provide any other specific product information
like price, individual brand equity, packages, and so forth. Considering the
reality, those crucial variables are needed to be explored with CO images when
measure the influence of CO image on consumers' attitudes toward and intentions
to purchase a foreign product. Additionally, the sample size needs to be larger
in a further study. Additionally, the number of sample countries was restricted
as three. A number of countries having various backgrounds are needed to explore
in CO studies. Based on this study, more various and sophisticated studies are
also needed for overcoming the limitations of this study.
Notes
1. Parameswaran, Ravi and R.Mohan Pisharodi, "Facets of Country of Origin Image:
An Empirical Assessment," Journal of Advertising, Vol.13, no.1, March 1994,
pp.34-44.
2. Papdopoulos, Nicolas and Louise A. Heslop, Product-Country Image: Impact and
Role in International Marketing, NY: IBP, 1993, pp.xix - xxvi.
3. Nagashima, Akira, "A Comparison of Japanese image survey among Japanese
businessmen," Journal of Marketing, v41, July, p.96.
4. Bilkey, Warren J., "Foreword," in Product-Country Images: Impact and Role in
International Marketing, NY: International Business Press, 1993, p.xix.
5. Han, C. Min, "Country Image: Halo or summary construct?," Journal of
Marketing Research, v.26, May, p.223.
6. Liebler, Jill A., Consumer Attitudes of Country-of-Origin, Japanese
Transplant Vehicles and the Buy American Campaign in the U.S. Auto Industry,
M.S. Thesis, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, May 1995. pp.109-115.
7. Nebenzahli, Israel D., Eugene D.Jaffe and Shlomo I.Lampert, "Toward a Theory
of Country Image Effect on Product Evaluation," Management International Review,
v37, n.1, 1997, p.28.
8. Parameswaran, Ravi and R.Mohan Pisharodi, "Facets of Country of Origin Image:
An Empirical Assessment," Journal of Advertising, Vol.13, no.1, March 1994,
pp.43-44.
9. Yaprak, Attila and Ravi Parameswaran, "Strategy Formulation in Multinational
Marketing: A Deductive, Paradigm-Integrating Approach," in Advances in
International Marketing, S. Tamer Cavusgil, ed., Greenwich, CT:JAI Press, 1986,
pp.21-45.
10. Han, C.Min, Op. Cit., p.28.
11. Papadopoulos, Nicolas, and Louise A. Heslop, "International Competitiveness
of American and Japanese Products," in Dimensions of International Business, N.
Papadopoulos, Canada: International Business Study Group, Carleton University,
1989.
12. Op.Cit.
13. Bilkey, Warren J. and Eric Nes, "Country of Origin Effects on Product
Evaluations," Journal of International Business Studies, Spring/Summer 1982,
xix-xx.
14. Nes, Eric and Warren J. Bilkey, "A Multi-Cue Test of Country of Origin
Theory," in Product-Country Images, N.Papadopoulos et al, ed., 1993, NY:
International Business Press, pp.184-185.
APPENDIX - A
< E-mail Questionnaire >
Subject: Help me with my project! It takes only 3 minutes.
Hello, I am a graduate student in the college of communication. I am researching
the effect of the country image and its correlation with the product image. I
would like to ask a few questions about it. The contents of your answers will
not be revealed but for the purpose of research. I would appreciate a few
minutes of your valuable time to get your responses. It takes 3 minutes to
complete.
To respond to my survey, type 'R' to reply. Then when you are asked "Do you want
to include original message?" Type 'Y' for 'Yes.' You can then type your
response as 'X' on each blank of my survey questions. Thanks for your
cooperation.
I. General Country Attributes
1. I KNOW THIS COUNTRY VERY WELL
Strongly Strongly
Disagree Agree
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
y Japan I----I----I----I----I----I----I----I
y S.Korea I----I----I----I----I----I----I----I
y India I----I----I----I----I----I----I----I
2. THE POLITICS OF THIS COUNTRY IS VERY ADVANCED
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
y Japan I----I----I----I----I----I----I----I
y S.Korea I----I----I----I----I----I----I----I
y India I----I----I----I----I----I----I----I
3. THE ECONOMY OF THIS COUNTRY IS VERY DEVELOPED
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
y Japan I----I----I----I----I----I----I----I
y S.Korea I----I----I----I----I----I----I----I
y India I----I----I----I----I----I----I----I
4. THE CULTURE OF THIS COUNTRY IS HIGHLY ADVANCED
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
y Japan I----I----I----I----I----I----I----I
y S.Korea I----I----I----I----I----I----I----I
y India I----I----I----I----I----I----I----I
5. THIS COUNTRY IS VERY SIMILAR WITH THE U.S.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
y Japan I----I----I----I----I----I----I----I
y S.Korea I----I----I----I----I----I----I----I
y India I----I----I----I----I----I----I----I
6. THE CITIZENS OF THIS COUNTRY ARE VERY WELL-EDUCATED
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
y Japan I----I----I----I----I----I----I----I
y S.Korea I----I----I----I----I----I----I----I
y India I----I----I----I----I----I----I----I
7. THE CITIZENS OF THIS COUNTRY ARE VERY FRIENDLY
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
y Japan I----I----I----I----I----I----I----I
y S.Korea I----I----I----I----I----I----I----I
y India I----I----I----I----I----I----I----I
8. I PREFER THIS COUNTRY VERY WELL
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
y Japan I----I----I----I----I----I----I----I
y S.Korea I----I----I----I----I----I----I----I
y India I----I----I----I----I----I----I----I
II. General Product Attributes
9. When you see the following (Made In) labels, what do you think about the
aspects of the countries' product below?
POOR EXCELLENT
JAPAN 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
y Innovativeness I-----I-----I-----I-----I-----I-----I-----I
y Design I-----I-----I-----I-----I-----I-----I-----I
y Prestige I-----I-----I-----I-----I-----I-----I-----I
y Workmanship I-----I-----I-----I-----I-----I-----I-----I
S.KOREA 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
y Innovativeness I-----I-----I-----I-----I-----I-----I-----I
y Design I-----I-----I-----I-----I-----I-----I-----I
y Prestige I-----I-----I-----I-----I-----I-----I-----I
y Workmanship I-----I-----I-----I-----I-----I-----I-----I
INDIA 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
y Innovativeness I-----I-----I-----I-----I-----I-----I-----I
y Design I-----I-----I-----I-----I-----I-----I-----I
y Prestige I-----I-----I-----I-----I-----I-----I-----I
y Workmanship I-----I-----I-----I-----I-----I-----I-----I
When you see the following (Made In) labels,
10. I WOULD LIKE TO BUY THE PRODUCT FROM THIS COUNTRY
Strongly Strongly
Disagree Agree
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
y Japan I-----I-----I-----I-----I-----I-----I-----I
y S.Korea I-----I-----I-----I-----I-----I-----I-----I
y India I-----I-----I-----I-----I-----I-----I-----I
III. Specific Product Attributes
11. When you see the following (Made In) labels of Home Computer, what do you
think about the aspects of the countries' product below?
POOR EXCELLENT
JAPANESE PC 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
y Performance I-----I-----I-----I-----I-----I-----I-----I
y Design I-----I-----I-----I-----I-----I-----I-----I
y Satisfaction with Price I-----I-----I-----I-----I-----I-----I-----I
y Reliability I-----I-----I-----I-----I-----I-----I-----I
POOR EXCELLENT
S.KOREAN PC 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
y Performance I-----I-----I-----I-----I-----I-----I-----I
y Design I-----I-----I-----I-----I-----I-----I-----I
y Satisfaction with Price I-----I-----I-----I-----I-----I-----I-----I
y Reliability I-----I-----I-----I-----I-----I-----I-----I
POOR EXCELLENT
INDIAN PC 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
y Performance I-----I-----I-----I-----I-----I-----I-----I
y Design I-----I-----I-----I-----I-----I-----I-----I
y Satisfaction with Price I-----I-----I-----I-----I-----I-----I-----I
y Reliability I-----I-----I-----I-----I-----I-----I-----I
12. I WOULD LIKE TO BUY THE HOME COMPUTER ORIGINATED FROM THIS COUNTRY
Strongly Strongly
Disagree Agree
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
y Japan I-----I-----I-----I-----I-----I-----I-----I
y S.Korea I-----I-----I-----I-----I-----I-----I-----I
y India I-----I-----I-----I-----I-----I-----I ----I
IV. What do you think about your patriotism?
1. Weak ( )
2. Neither Weak nor Strong ( )
3. Strong ( )
V. What is your gender?
MALE ( ) FEMALE ( )
Table 2
Correlation of "Intention to Purchase" General Products and CO Facets
(n=50)
R
JAPAN
S. KOREA
INDIA
General Country Attributes
Awareness of the country
.081
.044
.372**
The development of politics
.112
.259
.199
The development of economy
.458**
.496**
-.188
The advances of culture
.247
.499**
.310*
The similarity of the country with the U.S.
.302*
.318*
.079
The degree of education
.171
.417**
.100
The friendliness of the citizens
.160
.249
.127
General Product Attributes
Innovativeness
.380**
.554**
.718**
Design
.415**
.528**
.720**
Prestige
.776**
.583**
.674**
Workmanship
.561**
.561**
.774**
Table 3
Correlation of the Intention to Purchase PC and CO Facets
(n=50)
R
JAPAN
S. KOREA
INDIA
General Country Attributes
Awareness of the country
-.273
-.070
-.233
The development of politics
-.205
.182
-.370**
The development of economy
-.183
.438**
-.501**
The advances of culture
.178
.307*
-.605**
The similarity of the country with the U.S.
.112
.027
-.014
The degree of education
-.038
.412**
-.359**
The friendliness of the citizens
.115
.349*
-.468**
General Product Attributes
Performance
.716**
.558**
.265
Design
.845**
.497**
.317*
Satisfaction with the Price
.522**
.517**
.269
Reliability
.838**
.665**
.373*
Table 4-1
Significant Differences between Genders toward JAPAN (n=50)
General Country Attributes
The development of politics
N
Mean
S.D
T
Prob.>(T(
Male
25
5.32
1.11
2.622
.012
Female
25
4.44
1.26
The development of economy
N
Mean
S.D
T
Prob.>(T(
Male
25
6.60
.96
2.154
.036
Female
25
5.96
1.14
The advances of culture
N
Mean
S.D
T
Prob.>(T(
Male
25
6.20
.91
2.021
.049
Female
25
5.56
1.29
The friendliness of the citizens
N
Mean
S.D
T
Prob.>(T(
Male
25
5.56
1.26
3.028
.004
Female
25
4.28
1.70
(1) Strongly Disagree - (7) Strongly Agree
"n.s. (Not Significant) Factors"
"Awareness of the country" "The similarity of the country with the U.S." "The
degree of education"
General Product Attributes
Workmanship
N
Mean
S.D
T
Prob.>(T(
Male
25
6.36
.81
2.614
.012
Female
25
5.64
1.11
(1) Poor - (7) Excellent
"n.s. (Not Significant) Factors"
GPA - "Innovativeness" "Design" "Prestige" "Intention to purchase (GPA)"
SPA - "Performance" "Design" "Satisfaction with Price" "Reliability" "Intention
to purchase PC"
Table 4-2
Significant Differences between Genders toward S.KOREA (n=50)
General Country Attributes
N
Mean
S.D
T
Prob.>(T(
The development of politics
Male
25
4.00
1.12
2.724
.009
Female
25
3.12
1.17
The development of economy
Male
25
5.20
1.22
4.405
.000
Female
25
3.68
1.22
The advances of culture
Male
25
5.92
1.08
3.331
.002
Female
25
4.80
1.29
The degree of education
Male
25
6.08
.81
6.385
.000
Female
25
4.56
.87
The friendliness of the citizens
Male
25
5.12
1.13
4.405
.000
Female
25
3.76
1.05
(1) Strongly Disagree - (7) Strongly Agree
"N.S. Factors"- "Awareness of the country" "The similarity of the country with
the U.S."
General Product Attributes
Workmanship (1) Poor - (7) Excellent
Male
25
4.84
1.14
2.267
.028
Female
23
4.13
1.01
The Intention to purchase the product (1) Strongly Disagree - (7) Strongly Agree
Male
25
4.56
1.29
2.914
.005
Female
25
3.52
1.23
Specific Product Attributes (Home Computer)
Performance
Male
25
4.20
1.00
2.725
.009
Female
25
3.43
.95
Design
Male
25
4.24
1.13
2.076
.044
Female
23
3.57
1.12
Satisfaction with price
Male
25
4.64
1.29
3.379
.001
Female
23
3.39
1.27
Reliability
Male
25
4.36
.81
4.875
.000
Female
23
3.26
.75
(1) Poor - (7) Excellent
"n.s. (Not Significant) Factors"
GPA - "Innovativeness" "Design"
SPA - "Performance" "Design" "Intention to purchase PC"
Table 4-3
Significant Differences between Genders toward INDIA (n=50)
General Country Attributes
N
Mean
S.D
T
Prob.>(T(
The development of economy
Male
25
3.32
1.41
3.848
.000
Female
25
2.04
.89
The advances of culture
Male
25
6.24
.93
2.809
.007
Female
25
5.04
1.93
The degree of education
Male
25
5.08
1.89
3.604
.001
Female
25
3.24
1.71
The friendliness of the citizens
Male
25
5.28
1.17
2.522
.015
Female
25
4.40
1.29
(1) Strongly Disagree - (7) Strongly Agree
"N.S. Factors"- "Awareness of the country" "The development of politics" "The
Degree of similarity"
General Product Attributes
Innovativeness
Male
25
3.00
1.22
-2.216
.031
Female
25
3.88
1.56
Design
Male
25
2.84
1.28
-2.964
.005
Female
25
4.04
1.57
(1) Poor - (7) Excellent
The Intention to purchase the product
Male
25
3.12
1.17
-2.689
.010
Female
25
4.08
1.35
(1) StronglyDisagree - (7) StronglyAgree
Specific Product Attributes (Home Computer)
The intention to purchase the Computer
Male
25
1.60
.65
-4.040
.000
Female
25
2.64
1.11
(1) Strongly Disagree - (7) Strongly Agree
"n.s. (Not Significant) Factors"
GPA - "Prestige" "Workmanship"
SPA - "Performance" "Design" "Satisfaction with Price" "Reliability"
Table 5-1
Sig. Differences toward JAPAN between groups having different Patriotism (n=50)
General Country Attributes
N
Mean
S.D
T
Prob.>(T(
The development of economy
Moderate
28
6.00
1.28
-2.214
.039
Strong
22
6.64
.66
General Product Attributes
Innovativeness
Moderate
28
4.86
1.38
-3.727
.001
Strong
22
6.18
1.05
Design
Moderate
28
5.07
1.18
-2.871
.006
Strong
22
6.00
1.07
Prestige
Moderate
28
5.00
1.33
-2.426
.019
Strong
22
5.82
.96
Workmanship
N
Mean
S.D
T
Prob.>(T(
Moderate
28
5.71
1.05
-2.308
.025
Strong
22
6.36
.90
(1) Poor - (7) Excellent
"n.s. (Not Significant) Factors"
GCA - All Variables except "the development of economy"
GPA - "Intention to Purchase Products"
SPA - All Variables
Table 5-2
Sig. Differences toward S. KOREA between groups having different Patriotism
(n=50)
General Country Attributes
N
Mean
S.D
T
Prob.>(T(
The development of politics
Moderate
28
4.00
1.22
3.224
.002
Strong
22
3.00
.98
The degree of similarity
Moderate
28
2.71
.81
-2.023
.049
Strong
22
3.45
1.71
(1) Strongly Disagree - (7) Strongly Agree
General Product Attributes
Innovativeness
Moderate
28
3.50
1.14
-4.164
.000
Strong
22
4.73
.88
Specific Product Attributes (Home Computer)
Satisfaction with price
Moderate
28
4.43
1.48
2.349
.023
Strong
20
3.50
1.15
Reliability
Moderate
28
4.14
1.01
2.859
.006
Strong
20
3.40
.68
(1) Poor - (7) Excellent
"n.s. (Not Significant) Factors"
GCA - "Awareness of the country" "Development of economy" "advances of culture"
"degree of similarity" friendliness of the citizens"
GPA - All Variables except "Intention to Purchase Products"
SPA - "Performance" "Design" "Intention to purchase PC"
Table 5-3
Sig. Differences toward INDIA between groups having different Patriotism
(n=50)
General Country Attributes
N
Mean
S.D
T
Prob.>(T(
Prestige
Moderate
28
2.79
1.03
-2.090
.042
Strong
22
3.55
1.53
(1) Poor- (7) Excellent
Specific Product Attributes (Home Computer)
Performance
Moderate
28
2.21
.69
-2.878
.006
Strong
18
2.89
.90
(1) Poor- (7) Excellent
"n.s. (Not Significant) Factors"
All factors of the three CO facets except the two above did not show any
significant differences between the two different groups
A Study of the Facets of the "Country of Origin" Image and Its Comparison among
Different Countries
APPENDIX - B
TABLES OF THE RESULTS
Table 1
Comparison of Each CO Variables Among the Three Countries
(n=50)
Japan
S. Korea
India
Mean effectiveness rating
F-Value
Prob.>F
Sig. Diff.
General Country Attributes
Awareness of the country
3.52
2.40
3.12
7.644
.001
J-K / K-I
The development of politics
4.88
3.56
2.96
27.75
.000
J-K / J-I
The development of economy
6.28
4.44
2.68
97.11
.000
J-K/K-I/I-J
The advances of culture
5.88
5.36
5.64
1.80
n.s
The similarity of the country with the U.S.
4.08
2.72
2.07
26.63
.000
J-K / J-I
The degree of education
6.08
5.32
4.16
21.94
.000
J-K/K-I/I-J
The friendliness of the citizens
4.92
4.84
4.44
1.67
n.s
(1) Strongly Disagree - (7) Strongly Agree
General Product Attributes
Innovativeness
5.44
4.04
3.44
28.62
.000
J-K / J-I
Design
5.48
4.04
3.44
34.42
.000
J-K / J-I
Prestige
5.36
3.96
3.12
42.43
.000
J-K/K-I/I-J
Workmanship
6.00
4.50
3.48
47.63
.000
J-K/K-I/I-J
(1) Poor - (7) Excellent
The Intention to purchase the product
4.96
4.04
3.60
12.83
.000
J-K / J-I
(1) Strongly Disagree - (7) Strongly Agree
Specific Product Attributes (Home Computer)
Performance
5.24
3.83
2.48
64.730
.000
J-K/K-I/I-J
Design
5.28
3.92
2.39
73.15
.000
J-K/K-I/I-J
Satisfaction with Price
4.84
4.04
2.70
29.60
.000
J-K/K-I/I-J
Reliability
5.40
3.83
2.48
89.312
.000
J-K/K-I/I-J
(1) Poor - (7) Excellent
The Intention to purchase the Computer
4.92
3.60
2.12
39.95
.000
J-K/K-I/I-J
(1) Strongly Disagree - (7) Strongly Agree
A Study of the Facets of the Country of Origin Image and Its Comparison among
Different Countries
Table 2
Correlation of "Intention to Purchase" General Products and CO Facets
(n=50)
R
JAPAN
S. KOREA
INDIA
General Country Attributes
Awareness of the country
.081
.044
.372**
The development of politics
.112
.259
.199
The development of economy
.458**
.496**
-.188
The advances of culture
.247
.499**
.310*
The similarity of the country with the U.S.
.302*
.318*
.079
The degree of education
.171
.417**
.100
The friendliness of the citizens
.160
.249
.127
General Product Attributes
Innovativeness
.380**
.554**
.718**
Design
.415**
.528**
.720**
Prestige
.776**
.583**
.674**
Workmanship
.561**
.561**
.774**
Table 3
Correlation of the Intention to Purchase PC and CO Facets
(n=50)
R
JAPAN
S. KOREA
INDIA
General Country Attributes
Awareness of the country
-.273
-.070
-.233
The development of politics
-.205
.182
-.370**
The development of economy
-.183
.438**
-.501**
The advances of culture
.178
.307*
-.605**
The similarity of the country with the U.S.
.112
.027
-.014
The degree of education
-.038
.412**
-.359**
The friendliness of the citizens
.115
.349*
-.468**
General Product Attributes
Performance
.716**
.558**
.265
Design
.845**
.497**
.317*
Satisfaction with the Price
.522**
.517**
.269
Reliability
.838**
.665**
.373*
Table 4-1
Significant Differences between Genders toward JAPAN (n=50)
General Country Attributes
N
Mean
S.D
T
Prob.>(T(
The development of politics
Male
25
5.32
1.11
2.622
.012
Female
25
4.44
1.26
The development of economy
Male
25
6.60
.96
2.154
.036
Female
25
5.96
1.14
The advances of culture
Male
25
6.20
.91
2.021
.049
Female
25
5.56
1.29
The friendliness of the citizens
Male
25
5.56
1.26
3.028
.004
Female
25
4.28
1.70
(1) Strongly Disagree - (7) Strongly Agree
"n.s. (Not Significant) Factors"
"Awareness of the country" "The similarity of the country with the U.S." "The
degree of education"
General Product Attributes
Workmanship
Male
25
6.36
.81
2.614
.012
Female
25
5.64
1.11
(1) Poor - (7) Excellent
"n.s. (Not Significant) Factors"
GPA - "Innovativeness" "Design" "Prestige" "Intention to purchase (GPA)"
SPA - "Performance" "Design" "Satisfaction with Price" "Reliability" "Intention
to purchase PC"
Table 4-2
Significant Differences between Genders toward S.KOREA (n=50)
General Country Attributes
N
Mean
S.D
T
Prob.>(T(
The development of politics
Male
25
4.00
1.12
2.724
.009
Female
25
3.12
1.17
The development of economy
Male
25
5.20
1.22
4.405
.000
Female
25
3.68
1.22
The advances of culture
Male
25
5.92
1.08
3.331
.002
Female
25
4.80
1.29
The degree of education
Male
25
6.08
.81
6.385
.000
Female
25
4.56
.87
The friendliness of the citizens
Male
25
5.12
1.13
4.405
.000
Female
25
3.76
1.05
(1) Strongly Disagree - (7) Strongly Agree
"N.S. Factors"- "Awareness of the country" "The similarity of the country with
the U.S."
General Product Attributes
Workmanship (1) Poor - (7) Excellent
Male
25
4.84
1.14
2.267
.028
Female
23
4.13
1.01
The Intention to purchase the product (1) Strongly Disagree - (7) Strongly Agree
Male
25
4.56
1.29
2.914
.005
Female
25
3.52
1.23
Specific Product Attributes (Home Computer)
Performance
Male
25
4.20
1.00
2.725
.009
Female
25
3.43
.95
Design
Male
25
4.24
1.13
2.076
.044
Female
23
3.57
1.12
Satisfaction with price
Male
25
4.64
1.29
3.379
.001
Female
23
3.39
1.27
Reliability
Male
25
4.36
.81
4.875
.000
Female
23
3.26
.75
(1) Poor - (7) Excellent
"n.s. (Not Significant) Factors"
GPA - "Innovativeness" "Design"
SPA - "Performance" "Design" "Intention to purchase PC"
Table 4-3
Significant Differences between Genders toward INDIA (n=50)
General Country Attributes
N
Mean
S.D
T
Prob.>(T(
The development of economy
Male
25
3.32
1.41
3.848
.000
Female
25
2.04
.89
The advances of culture
Male
25
6.24
.93
2.809
.007
Female
25
5.04
1.93
The degree of education
Male
25
5.08
1.89
3.604
.001
Female
25
3.24
1.71
The friendliness of the citizens
Male
25
5.28
1.17
2.522
.015
Female
25
4.40
1.29
(1) Strongly Disagree - (7) Strongly Agree
"N.S. Factors"- "Awareness of the country" "The development of politics" "The
Degree of similarity"
General Product Attributes
Innovativeness
Male
25
3.00
1.22
-2.216
.031
Female
25
3.88
1.56
Design
Male
25
2.84
1.28
-2.964
.005
Female
25
4.04
1.57
(1) Poor - (7) Excellent
The Intention to purchase the product
Male
25
3.12
1.17
-2.689
.010
Female
25
4.08
1.35
(1) Strongly Disagree - (7) Strongly Agree
Specific Product Attributes (Home Computer)
The intention to purchase the Computer
Male
25
1.60
.65
-4.040
.000
Female
25
2.64
1.11
(1) Strongly Disagree - (7) Strongly Agree
"n.s. (Not Significant) Factors"
GPA - "Prestige" "Workmanship"
SPA - "Performance" "Design" "Satisfaction with Price" "Reliability"
Table 5-1
Sig. Differences toward JAPAN between groups having different Patriotism (n=50)
General Country Attributes
N
Mean
S.D
T
Prob.>(T(
The development of economy
Moderate
28
6.00
1.28
-2.214
.039
Strong
22
6.64
.66
General Product Attributes
Innovativeness
Moderate
28
4.86
1.38
-3.727
.001
Strong
22
6.18
1.05
Design
Moderate
28
5.07
1.18
-2.871
.006
Strong
22
6.00
1.07
Prestige
Moderate
28
5.00
1.33
-2.426
.019
Strong
22
5.82
.96
Workmanship
N
Mean
S.D
T
Prob.>(T(
Moderate
28
5.71
1.05
-2.308
.025
Strong
22
6.36
.90
(1) Poor - (7) Excellent
"n.s. (Not Significant) Factors"
GCA - All Variables except "the development of economy"
GPA - "Intention to Purchase Products"
SPA - All Variables
Table 5-2
Sig. Differences toward S. KOREA between groups having different Patriotism
(n=50)
General Country Attributes
N
Mean
S.D
T
Prob.>(T(
The development of politics
Moderate
28
4.00
1.22
3.224
.002
Strong
22
3.00
.98
The degree of similarity
Moderate
28
2.71
.81
-2.023
.049
Strong
22
3.45
1.71
(1) Strongly Disagree - (7) Strongly Agree
General Product Attributes
Innovativeness
Moderate
28
3.50
1.14
-4.164
.000
Strong
22
4.73
.88
Specific Product Attributes (Home Computer)
Satisfaction with price
Moderate
28
4.43
1.48
2.349
.023
Strong
20
3.50
1.15
Reliability
Moderate
28
4.14
1.01
2.859
.006
Strong
20
3.40
.68
(1) Poor - (7) Excellent
"n.s. (Not Significant) Factors"
GCA - "Awareness of the country" "Development of economy" "advances of culture"
"degree of similarity" friendliness of the citizens"
GPA - All Variables except "Intention to Purchase Products"
SPA - "Performance" "Design" "Intention to purchase PC"
Table 5-3
Sig. Differences toward INDIA between groups having different Patriotism
(n=50)
General Country Attributes
N
Mean
S.D
T
Prob.>(T(
Prestige
Moderate
28
2.79
1.03
-2.090
.042
Strong
22
3.55
1.53
(1) Poor- (7) Excellent
Specific Product Attributes (Home Computer)
Performance
Moderate
28
2.21
.69
-2.878
.006
Strong
18
2.89
.90
(1) Poor- (7) Excellent
"n.s. (Not Significant) Factors"
All factors of the three CO facets except the two above did not show any
significant differences between the two different groups
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