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A New Media Analysis Technique: An Ethical Analysis of Media Entertainment
Eileen R. Ringnalda
University of Utah
2590 E. Elm Ave.
Salt Lake City, Utah 84109
(801) 484-7875
E. [log in to unmask]
March 1997
Abstract
This paper asserts the need for an ethical analysis of media entertainment
texts and describes how it may be carried out. Just as other forms of media
criticism are grounded in the disciplines of linguistics, psychology, and
sociology, this media analysis technique is based on ethical principles and the
evaluation of values communicated by media entertainment. The paper elaborates
on the significance of ethical analysis, as well as practical guidelines for
implementation.
A New Media Analysis Technique: An Ethical Analysis of Media Entertainment
Many forms of media criticism have been developed as tools for
interpretation of media
texts, each one providing a unique perspective into the meaning of media texts
and the
implications of their meaning. For instance, semiological analysis looks at
how meaning is
created. Psychoanalytic criticism tries to understand the unconscious desires
and politics
working within a media text. Marxist criticism views the media as a highly
political entity
exemplifying the conflict between the bourgeois and the working class.
Sociological analysis
examines the relationships within the text, as well as the impact of the text
on relationships
between media and the audience. Berger's Media Analysis Techniques sets forth
all of these
forms of analysis as an accepted "canon" of critical methods (1991). Each
contributes a
different way of looking at media content and the implications of living in a
mass mediated
society. Each pays attention to a different set of details and works from its
own set of
assumptions. One does not necessarily have more value than another, but each
contributes a
set of tools with which to examine media texts and further our knowledge and
understanding
of messages and practices within the media industry.
I would like to propose another lens with which to look at media texts: an
ethical lens.
Discussion of ethics often is reserved for the practice of journalism, public
relations, and
advertising. We tend to view media ethics as a moral code that provides a list
of do's and
don'ts that explain what is acceptable and punishable in the practice of these
media
professions. But ethics permeate all stages and forms of mass media, from
creation to
audience reception. Ethics is latent in our decision-making, in the stories
found in media
texts, and in how the audience chooses to use media texts. From start to
finish, ethical choices are inherently present in media production,
dissemination, and consumption.
Although most ethical discussions focus on journalism, public relations,
and advertising, ethics also is inherently present in the production,
dissemination, and consumption of entertainment media such as films, television
comedies and dramas. It is my purpose to suggest a media analysis technique for
media entertainment, in particular. The ethical lens may be used for evaluation
of other types of media, but entertainment media is a particularly interesting
site of analysis because entertainment often is viewed as ethically neutral.
Unlike other mass media sources, the entertainment industry does not have a
stated code of ethics and it does not assume a great responsibility to the
public. For this reason, evaluation of ethical practices in the production and
content of media entertainment ought to be consciously included in the practice
of media criticism. Entertainment does not have a clear guide of what is 'true'
or 'false' as producers can exercise creative license, and unlike journalism,
media entertainment has no obligation to serve the public interest. But media
entertainment models ethical behavior and morals that members of society may
adopt or perceive as cultural norms. Furthermore, the choices made in
production are viewed by mass audiences, so these choices carry implications in
the content's dissemination to thousands, and even millions, of people. Just as
news outlets may be viewed as gate-keepers and agenda-setters, the choices in
entertainment regarding characters, conflicts, and setting influence what
viewers think and talk about, and even the way the audience views the world
(Gerbner 251).
In developing an ethical analysis of media entertainment, an understanding of
the basic assumptions behind its practice must be examined. Like other media
analysis techniques, this critical method also must draw upon a group of key
terms and ideas. In addition, due to the ambiguity and immense size of the
entertainment industry, it is important to clearly define the sites of
criticism. As previously mentioned, ethical decisions are made in production,
dissemination, and consumption, as well as the text itself. Finally, it is
necessary to think through the process of ethical analysis and criticism of
media entertainment to provide a model of how this criticism technique may be
carried out.
Defining an ethical analysis of media texts: assumptions and key terms
First, in establishing the assumptions of an ethical critique of
media entertainment, it is
necessary to provide a definition of ethics. Ethics is one of those elusive
terms like culture,
truth, and ideology. It can take on a variety of meanings, depending on the
context of time,
place, cultural norms, personal values and beliefs, and the situation at hand.
For the purposes
of defining a media analysis technique based in ethics, ethics may be defined
as a systematic
study of moral choices. Discussions of ethics naturally implicate moral
philosophy and the role of the moral imagination (Holmes v, Rossi 4) "The 'moral
imagination' serves as a useful shorthand for that process of posing and mulling
over issues of demanding action and judgments of right and wrong. The moral
imagination also refers to the ideas and possibilities that occur to us in
judging courses of action" (Rossi 4). The moral imagination makes ethical
decision-making possible, referring to the process of looking at options and
weighing the results. I choose to focus my definition of ethics on moral
choices, however, because the ethical analysis is designed to critique the
results of choices already made and executed.
But this definition of ethics as the study of moral choices still leaves the
ambiguity of "moral choices." Moral describes a type of choice that is made.
You can choose between a hamburger and a cheeseburger with no consequence,
except for your own desire or taste. Normally, this choice is not based on
anything but personal preference. But a moral choice involves consequences that
reflect on the choice, critiquing it as right, wrong, good, or bad. Sometimes
the significance of a moral choice is attached to an ethically-neutral decision:
a McDonald's placemat will tell you, you made the right choice. But whether you
choose a hamburger or cheeseburger, or even the choice between McDonald's and
Wendy's, is really inconsequential. There is no right or wrong; it is a matter
of personal taste.
However, moral choices are guided by the moral imagination and careful
consideration of results measured against social and cultural norms. We make
decisions in accordance to our beliefs about what is true, fair, responsible, or
right. The process of moral decision-making is usually second-nature to us. We
simply speak and behave based on the values established by our culture and our
own personal beliefs (Bugeja 9-17). Although buying a hamburger instead of a
cheeseburger is not a moral choice, the decision of how to spend your money or
what constitutes a healthy diet may reveal your values, and thus may be
considered a moral choice. I stress that these may be considered moral choices
because some would view them as practical, physiological and material choices
with no moral consequence. My point, however, is that there are values
involved in such choices, and consideration of values (or the way in which a
decision reflects
a system of values) indicates a moral choice (Bugeja 3-4).
Values are another key concept in the basic assumptions of an ethical
media analysis. In
essence, an ethical critique is designed to ask, what values are operating in
this text? What
are the choices, and what are the values behind those choices? Fairclough
suggests that the
first step in evaluating any media text is to evaluate the choices by asking,
"How is the text
designed, why is it designed in this way, and how else could it have been
designed?"
Fairclough explains, "This question highlights the idea that texts are based
upon choices, and
that alternative choices might always have been made" (202). What makes one
choice more
desirable than another depends on one's values. An ethical critique of media
texts works with
the assumption that media texts are produced by a series of choices, and that
choices are
made based on values. Because the implementation of values indicates a moral
decision, the
choices made in production, dissemination, and consumption of media texts may
be said to
have ethical significance. An ethical critique of media assumes that ethical
choices are
inherent in all media forms.
The second assumption operating in an ethical critique is that ethical
concerns are worthy
of close study because the values inherently present in media texts both
reflect and reinforce
cultural values. The extent of media influence depends on an interpretation of
media effects.
In discussion of this new critical model, I will approach media effects from
three
perspectives: (1) Gerbner's cultivation analysis, (2) the social construction
of reality, and (3)
media's reproduction of dominant ideology and power relations. Each of these
theories are
open to a range of interpretation from a powerful media perspective to a view
of limited
effects. I suggest these theories not as means to determine the scope of media
effects, but to
propose the need to take the production process of media entertainment
seriously and pay attention to ethical choices and value messages in media
entertainment texts.
Cultivation analysis
Gerbner's cultivation analysis is part of the 20-year Cultural Indicators
research project
designed to "understand the consequences of living in a mass-produced symbolic
and cultural
environment dominated by television" (Signorielli 9). Gerbner is the director
of massive
empirical studies collecting quantifiable data to understand the extent of mass
media's
influence on audiences. One of his major research questions is to discover how
media
messages contribute to an understanding of social reality. The process of
documenting and
analyzing the independent contributions of television messages to the viewers'
conception of
reality is referred to as cultivation analysis.
Cultivation analysis generally begins with identifying and assessing
the most
recurrent and stable patterns in television content, emphasizing the
consistent
images, portrayals, and values that cut across most program genres.
In its simplest
form, cultivation analysis tries to ascertain if those who spend more
time watching
television are more likely to perceive the real world in ways that
reflect the most
common and repetitive messages and lessons of the television world,
compared
with people who watch less television but are otherwise comparable in
important
demographic characteristics (Signorielli 16).
This research aims to quantifiably measure media impact by comparing the
beliefs of those
classified as "heavy viewers" and "light viewers," based on the pattern of
attitudes and beliefs
presented in analyzed television content. Of course, many variables besides
television
influence an individual's attitudes and beliefs. Education, class, gender,
religious beliefs, and
age all interfere with making direct correlations between television content
and views of the
world.
Cultivation is not the sole (or even frequent) determinant of
specific actions,
although it may tip a delicate balance, mark the mainstream of common
consciousness, and signal a sea of change in the cultural
environment. Strictly
speaking, cultivation means the specific independent (though not
isolated)
contribution that a particularly consistent and compelling symbolic
stream makes to
the complex process of socialization and encultration (Gerbner 249).
Gerbner's approach is to look at underlying attitudes and opinions rather than
surveying
specific types of knowledge and behavior. He goes beyond the hypodermic needle
theory to
look at the larger picture of what makes a culture distinct and how media texts
on television
contribute to forming those distinctions. The trends found in media messages
are considered
significant due to the mass dissemination of media messages.
It is for these same reasons that an analysis of media entertainment from
an ethical framework is needed. Society's values and ethical (or unethical)
behavior cannot be solely attributed to
the media at large, nor to any specific media texts. However, the values
communicated in
media texts contribute to the cultural environment as part of "the complex
process of
socialization and enculturation." Gerbner's cultivation analysis points to the
potential
influence of repeated exposure to media messages and the theory that attitudes
and opinions
can be shaped over time by the dominant themes found in media texts. Looking at
ethics and
values in media texts simply points to a more specific area and type of content
relayed in the
media. As Gerbner's work clarifies, the patterns of values exhibited in media
entertainment can be cultivated over time into accepted cultural norms.
Therefore, an ethical critique can contribute to an understanding of media
entertainment's relationship to our culture's ethical norms and values.
Social construction of reality
Gerbner's research hypotheses hint at the broader theory of social
construction of reality.
Both cultivation analysis and social construction of reality are concerned with
the relationship
of media and culture. And both support an active audience theory that
acknowledges the audience is attentive and synthesizes mediated symbols with its
own experience (Baran
291).
A media application of social construction of reality is based on the
social science
epistomolgical model that says reality is created by what we experience.
Because mediated
communication is part of what we experience, and also brings experiences
outside the
realm of our knowledge to us, media plays a role in our understanding of the
world.
Christians says, "From these media we receive symbols of who we are, what we
should
believe, and how we should act. [Media] entertainment, for all its recreative
value, does much
to educate and socialize its patrons, who are all of us" (215-216). Media
texts present a
range of experiences as part of, or as an imitation of, reality. By virtue of
the media being
part of our lives, it begins contributing to our understanding of reality,
similar to another
relationship or experience might contribute to it.
In my interpretation, this theory views media as a contributor to culture,
but resists a
powerful effects view that attributes all cultural understanding to media
manipulation. Adoni
and Mane take a less favorable view of media and the social construction of
reality. They
assert the need for a more holistic view of media effects and culture, and cite
Adorno and
Horkheimer's "culture industry" as an early attempt at a more integrated
approach (Adoni 323, 332). Adorno and Horkheimer first introduced the "culture
industry" concept in the mid-1940s, a time when the powerful effects conception
of media was in its prime. They state:
The whole world is made to pass through the filter of the culture
industry. The old
experience of the movie-goer, who sees the world outside as an
extension of the
film he has just left (because the latter is intent upon reproducing
the world of
everyday perceptions), is now the producer's guideline. The more
intensely and
flawlessly his techniques duplicate empirical objects, the easier it
is today for the
illusion to prevail that the outside world is the straightforward
continuation of that
presented on the screen. . . . Real life is becoming
indistinguishable from the
movies (During 33-34).
Their essay represents an early, powerful effects view that still leaves some
kind of cultural
residue, a question in our minds, as to the power of media to consume our
experience of
reality. Adoni and Mane note that from this point of view, "The main function
of these
symbolic expressions of reality is to manipulate the individual into developing
a 'false'
consciousness of both the immediate social environment and of more remote
and/or abstract
social phenomena" (Adoni 332). This rather threatening view of the social
construction of
reality is presently looked on with skepticism (Baran 291), but the extreme
view represents the worst-case scenario that keeps critics coming back to
examine media content and the social construction of reality.
Whether media's social construction of reality is viewed as one of many
cultural
contributors or as an all-powerful source, this theory serves to support the
need for an ethical
critique of media. If we naturally integrate the values represented in media
texts with our
own, it is worthwhile to identify the values communicated in mass media. If
the ethical
decision-making portrayed in media entertainment contributes to the audience's
experience of
reality, we ought to look at how ethical dilemmas are presented and solved in
media entertainment.
Ideology and power
A final theory that supports the need for critical ethical evaluation of
media texts is the
notion of power and ideology. These concepts have emerged as an important part
of
contemporary social and cultural theory (Lull 3). Applied to the media,
ideology and power
are key issues due to the mass distribution of media texts, as well as the
normalization of
power relations and ways of thinking presented in media texts. Lull says,
"Some ideological
sets are elevated and amplified by the mass media, given great legitimacy by
them and
distributed persuasively, often glamorously, to large audiences. In the
process, selected
constellations of ideas assume ever-increasing importance, reinforcing their
original meanings
and extending their social impact" (8). In the routine storytelling and images
of mass media,
dominant ideologies are reproduced and alternative voices and ways of thinking
are shut out
of the marketplace of ideas. "Because authorship of television's agenda rests
ultimately in
the hands of society's political-economic-cultural establishment, the selected
information
often congeals to form ideological sets that over-represent the interest of the
powerful and
under-represent the interests of others" (Lull 9).
The power of the privileged is sustained and increased primarily because
their ideological
dominance is executed in the most mundane, everyday images and messages we
encounter.
The dominant ways of thinking are so normalized that we do not even recognize
their
presence. "Because media content is not sponsored directly by government or
associated in
the minds of most people with administrative authority, its ideological tones
and trajectories
are not easily recognized, a fact that helps magnify the ideological impact"
(Lull 15).
Furthermore, Lull notes that "when people refer to media images in everyday
conversations,
privileged ideological themes are once again articulated and socially
validated" (20). In other words, the media is a powerful source of reproducing
the ideas of America's elite and silencing those who have never had the chance
to speak.
Although discussion of ideology and power tends to be very abstract, Lull
addresses the
implications of media-transmitted ideology: "Ultimately, cultural power
reflects how, in the
situation realms of everyday life, individuals and groups construct and declare
their cultural
identities and activities and how those expressions and behaviors influence
others" (72). The
ideology reinforced by media texts reinforces our own behavior and
relationships to continue
supporting the established power-structure. Lull suggests that as long as the
media condone
the dominant ideology, social change will be stifled -- as represented in the
media and in real
life.
The ability of media to spotlight and disseminate ideological and cultural
fragments first of all answers the often asked question, "do the mass
media reflect
social reality or create it?" Without a doubt, the answer is "both."
More
interesting questions are, "How does the media reflect and create
social reality,
who benefits, and in what ways?" Or perhaps even more to the point,
"How do
the media help facilitate the social construction of cultural
reality?" (73).
Lull extends the social construction of reality theory into a realm where it is
most powerful:
when it is invisible. But his suggestion to begin asking "how" media reflects
and creates
society is the point where I see an ethical critique enter into the dialogue.
What values have
been normalized so that ideology can be reproduced without being noticed? How
do we
view the powerful members of society versus the less-powerful? What values are
attached to
both, and how do we explain the difference between the two? An ethical
analysis of media entertainment is needed because media producers and audience
members take these "hidden" values for granted. Critics need to look closely at
the content of media entertainment to identify the ethical dilemmas and
implications of reproduced power and ideology.
Each of these theories supplies reasons for critiquing the creation and
content of media
from a set of ethical questions and standards. The common bond between all
three is the
power of mass-distributed texts. Regardless of whether one agrees with the
powerful effects
of Adorno and Horkheimer or an active audience conception of media effects,
media entertainment produces an idea of what constitutes acceptable values.
With regard to ideology and power, the media has been so successful in
cultivating attitudes and constructing a social reality that we don't even
recognize ethics and values within texts because we simply expect a certain set
of ideas to exist in the story. The strong presence of media in our culture and
society make its content an important source of study. Moreover, because media
production,
dissemination, and consumption hinge on moral choices (choices determined by
values), we
ought to critically look at the values and ethics portrayed in media texts.
In addition to assumptions, media analysis techniques are distinguished by
a set of ideas,
reflected in the vocabulary used in analysis. For an ethical analysis, the
terms used to
describe ethical principles should be used in the critique. This includes the
concepts of truth
and fairness, recognition of bias and manipulation, and attention to
responsibility and power
(Bugeja). Josephson has established a set of ten universal values: honesty,
integrity,
promise-keeping, fidelity, fairness, care, respect, responsibility, pursuit of
personal excellence
in character, and accountability. Just as semiotics, psychoanalytic analysis,
Marxist analysis
and social analysis draw on the vocabularies of linguistics, Freudian
psychology, Marxism,
and the social sciences, the dialogue of ethical criticism ought to use the
vocabulary of ethical study.
Defining an ethical analysis of media texts: process and application
With the assumptions that all media texts inherently contain results
of ethical choices
and that the evaluation of those choices are significant, along with a set of
terms to
use in analysis, I can now present a proposed method of an ethical critique of
media
entertainment. Like other methods of media analysis, an ethical critique is
one method
of entering into and evaluating a text. It is not meant to produce a
comprehensive look at a
single text or a series of texts. Instead, it is designed to look carefully at
the values
communicated through the choices made in production, dissemination,
consumption, and
content.
Before elaborating on these four sites of ethical analysis and detailing a
possible method of ethical analysis, it is necessary to note the critic's
position in relation to the text. The media critic is a member of the audience
and can only infer the reasoning behind choices to evaluate the effectiveness or
implications of those choices. It is not the critic's role to find a definitive
answer regarding the producer's intentions or the impact on the audience; it is
the critic's role to provide a reading, or interpretation, based on media
content. The critic is not in a position to know the details of production and
dissemination, but to offer suggestions as to what the final product means in
and of itself, in relation to culture and society, and to the ongoing stories
and values constructed by media entertainment.
Even so, the critic is in a privileged position due to his or her media
literacy and training
to watch, observe, and interpret media texts. Although he or she is an
audience member, the
critic watches media texts differently than the average television or movie
viewer. For this
reason, it is important that the critic take into consideration the media
text's intended
audience and purpose. For example, to a critic, the movie Pulp Fiction may be
a site for
social commentary. But to an average audience member, who may have selected to
see this
movie because John Travolta stars in it or Quentin Tarantino directs it, the
movie is viewed
as an exciting mobster film with eccentric and entertaining characters.
Huckin points out
that discourse analysts, who face the same disconnection from the average
audience member
as media critics, ought to consider the text from both the view of the intended
audience and
from a more distant, critical vantage point as a critic (98). He suggests that
the analyst first
experience the text as it is created to be experienced, and then return to it
again with a more
critical eye. This dual-approach to a media text raises an awareness of the
gap between a
critical reading and average audience viewing. Both perspectives are relevant
to the analytic
process of the text itself, as well as evaluations of production, distribution,
and consumption. In the case of analyzing the latter three, the dual role of
the critic is to first consider the point of view of the decision-maker, and
then evaluate the choice from the critic's 'outsider' viewpoint.
As has been mentioned throughout the paper, ethical criticism can focus on
any or all of
the four sites of ethical analysis. An ethical analysis would best focus on
one aspect of an
ethical site in order to conduct a detailed study, but these locations of
ethical decision-making
often are interrelated and it would be possible to consider two or more of them
for a
comprehensive study of a single text.
Production refers to the decisions made in the creative process of making a
media
text. It looks at choices made in directing, writing, acting, lighting,
costuming -- all the
factors of production that contribute to our understanding of the verbal and
visual
communication. The source of study will be the media text and the context in
which it is
presented, although the focus is not on the textual content. Instead, the
focus is on the
textual choices, which requires use of the moral imagination. Not only does
the ethical critic
need to look at what is presented in and around the text, but he or she must
imagine the
options that have been rejected. For instance, in an ethical critique of a
Hitchcock film, one
may question his use of framing and music. Why did he choose this camera
angle? What
does the underlying music contribute to the scene? Why does the cut to a
close-up occur
now and not earlier or later? These kinds of questions are not moral issues
standing alone,
but the further evaluation of the answers leads the critic down the path of
ethical evaluation.
How does Hitchcock's choice to pan the landscape contribute to the story? What
does it
invite the viewer to think about? What did Hitchcock want us to think about?
Why? Some
sort of ethical value lies behind each choice, as defined in the assumptions of
ethical critique.
We draw on our beliefs of right and wrong, good and bad, even in the process of
making
practical choices. The moral values in the production of media texts is found
in the answer to
the questions, What are the creators trying to communicate here? And why this
message and
not others?
Dissemination looks at the choices made by media outlets concerning how to
present
the text. This includes circulation, distribution, promotion, and framing of
the media event.
Ethical analysis of dissemination evaluates the process of deciding the target
audience for a
text and how to go about marketing the text to the intended audience. Sources
of observable
data include the text itself, the environment it occurs in, the promotional
strategies including
advertising, movie trailers, talk show appearances, and merchandizing, as well
as distribution
facts such as time and location(s) of release, profitability, and
viewership/attendance (such as
Nielsen ratings). An interesting source of ethical critique of media
dissemination would be
the NBC television show, Friends. The ethical analysis would focus on the
values behind
choices of the program's time slot, the advertisers supporting the program,
Friends
merchandise such as t-shirts, coffee-table books, and mugs. Other sources to
consider in an
evaluation of the message of Friends may be the milk ad campaign and movie
projects the
actors from Friends have appeared in. The theme song by the Rembrandts, and
the
popularity of Jennifer Aniston and Courtney Cox's hair styles also are sites of
dissemination.
Like the ethical critique of production, an analysis of dissemination probes
the values being
communicated by these combined texts, as well as the values behind the decision
to create the
images presented in a variety of media outlets. With the integrated marketing
approach of
media entertainment, critiquing the dissemination of a media text and the
coherent
presentation across media sources are important sites of study to evaluate
ethical choices and
values presented in the media.
Consumption is a less tangible site of evaluation, but an important site in
the process
of mass communication. Consumption refers to evaluating the thought-process
behind the
audience's choice to watch a movie or television program. Ethical choices are
inherently
present in the process of selecting what to watch, as well as deciding how to
respond to
media texts. The process of collecting and evaluating data for this kind of
ethical critique is
different than the other three sources of evaluation. While other sites of
critique may be
based on a media event, an ethical critique of media consumption is based on
audience
selection and retention of the event. Data may be collected through survey
interviews or
ethnographic study. For example, an interesting ethical analysis of audience
consumption
might be a study of the success of the Star Wars Trilogy re-release in movie
theaters. By
interviewing Star Wars fans, people waiting in long lines to get tickets, and
gathering
audience reaction to the dissemination of Star Wars, an ethical analysis may
reveal something
new about values in our culture. The critic would look for the dominant values
among the
audience members that motivate their choice to see this film classic again and
again.
Consumption is an important site of study because it can serve as a useful
place to compare
audience values with the values generated in the process of production and
dissemination. Are the media industry's perceptions of audience values and
motivation to watch media entertainment true based on an ethical analysis of
media consumption? What role does media entertainment play in the audience's
daily lives and discussions? What do audiences expect from media entertainment,
and is the expectation fulfilled? An ethical analysis of consumption may reveal
answers to some of these questions about media and society.
Finally, the text itself serves as a site for ethical analysis. Putting
aside production
concerns, practices of dissemination, and audience appeal, the stories and
characters in a
media text itself models ethical dilemmas. This strategy is similar to a
content analysis, but
with an eye for identifying the ethical themes and issues in the text.
Although media
entertainment usually takes place in a fictional world, most stories are placed
in a context that
closely resembles reality. Media's role in social construction of reality is a
key concept to the
significance of textual analysis from an ethical point of view. All the hype
surrounding the
character Murphy Brown's choice to be a single parent illustrates the close
connection
between reality and fiction, and the impact of moral choices in fictional
stories on the real
world. When Vice President Dan Quayle condemned the character and the program,
Murphy
Brown, the television show became a site for serious ethical debate about
"family values" and
child rearing. The situational comedy, resembling real life, was treated as a
real story with
real consequences. Other television programs and movies are likely to have
similar
responses, but perhaps not as blatant as the Murphy Brown situation. This site
for analysis is
centered on an analysis of the story and the ethical values portrayed in media
texts.
Each of these sites of ethical analysis provides insight into the ethical
values contained in the creation and content of media entertainment texts. As
the dominant source of stories about our culture, an ethical analysis may help
distinguish cultural values and the degree of reality presented in media
entertainment.
The process for ethical analysis is adapted from a number of ethical
decision-making
models. Although the critic is not making an ethical decision, he or she is
about the business
of evaluating the decisions made in a media text and the values communicated by
those
choices. The considerations that go into the decision-making process are
appropriate factors
to consider in evaluation, as well. The four key steps in an ethical critique
are to describe the
ethical choice in question, to define the relevant concepts and concerns, to
determine the
implications and consequences of the choice, and to defend the critique with
support from the
media text and other sources.
1. Describe the ethical choice in question
Once the critic has experienced the text as a regular audience member and
has followed that up with another viewing to look at the text more critically,
ethical issues, themes, or particular
instances of ethical choices ought to emerge from the text. Most likely, the
critic will not be
able to address every choice or value in the text, so he or she ought to select
a few prominent
themes that are of interest to him or her. It may be helpful to view the media
text again with
a few select issues and values to watch for.
The first step is to simply describe the choices and values seen in the
text. This may
include noting the content of specific scenes or characters and writing a
detailed description
of what happened. Depending on the site of ethical analysis being addressed,
describing the text
may focus on the story's framework and presentation to describing specific
content that
exemplifies moral choices. Also, descriptions may look at the text as a whole,
or specific
segments of it. For some, the process of describing may include a thorough
content analysis,
but for others description may be based on first-impressions and memory
re-call. There is no
prescriptive formula (just as this proposed method for ethical critique may be
adjusted and
changed to fit individual circumstances), but description allows the critic to
categorize and
analyze the details or larger impressions of a media text.
The categorization of ethical issues ought to be based on the events in or
surrounding the media text. The critic may begin with the list of Josephson's
universal values and look for instances in the production, dissemination,
consumption, or content of the text that exemplify values such as honesty,
fairness, respect, or responsibility. But this step of describing the text
ought to be based on the evidence described in each of the four sites of
analysis above.
Thorough description of the text must precede an evaluative judgement of the
text. As a media analysis technique that attempts to explain values such as
fairness and truthfulness in the media, the process of describing the ethical
issues at hand help the critic achieve fairness and truthfulness by accounting
for details with a non-evaluative perspective. This step is designed to notice
all details in the text that contribute to the values communicated. By setting
aside judgements of the decisions made in or about a text, the critic is better
able to fully describe what is going on in the text. This may lead to noticing
details that evaluative bias may have caused the critic to neglect.
In the process of defining, one should not only look at what is included
in the text, but
what has been excluded. Notice what happens in the text, and what could have
been done
differently. What options appear to have been rejected? The critic ought to
explore the details of choices and related values without making evaluative
judgements at this stage. Furthermore, the description at this stage of
analysis should be grounded in the text being considered; meaning, focusing on
the text itself and the content that reflects choices made at the various stages
of production, distribution, and consumption.
2. Define the relevant concepts and concerns
This step is borrowed from the Potter's Box model of ethical decision
making (Christians 2-25). The Potter's Box model suggests to first define the
situation, followed by identifying values,
selecting guiding principles, and considering loyalties. I have grouped these
four key
components of the Potter's Box model into the second step of an ethical
critique of media
entertainment. Each of them introduce a dimension of ethical concerns that
serve to bring the
ethical choice in question into sharper focus. Because the decision is already
made and the
point is to evaluate, these steps serve to help the critic understand what the
decision-maker
needed to take into account.
Practically speaking, one way to go about defining the relevant concepts
and concerns is
to brainstorm. Developing a running list of any and all ethical concepts that
come to mind
often produces ideas that may have not been apparent at first. Once the critic
feels he or she
has exhausted the possible values, principles, and loyalties related to the
text, he or she
should then go back and look for patterns and themes that emerge in the lists.
Another tactic
would be to refer to the ethical concepts and vocabulary to systematically work
through ethical principles such as Josephson's universal values. This step
builds and elaborates on the descriptive process on the first step. It differs,
however, in that rather than describing ethical issues from the text's point of
view (description based in the media text), this description is based in the
ideas and vocabulary of ethics. The critic has already described the situation
in the media text, and now the description focuses on the situation as a moral
issue.
The Potter's Box model is particularly helpful in defining ethical
concerns and issues
because it suggests looking at the situation from a series of viewpoints --
each category adds
a new layer or new dimension to the previous one. Defining the situation has
been
accomplished by the process of describing in step one, but as the critic
refines his or her
focus, he or she can synthesize the observations from the previous step to
write a clear,
coherent definition of the situation to be evaluated. This sets up a clear
purpose
for further work. With a written definition of the ethical situation, there is
no question about
what theme the critic has selected to focus on.
Values and principles are closely related, but offer slightly different
nuances in the
process of defining the relevant concepts and concerns. Values refer to rather
abstract
concepts such as love, truth, honesty, and integrity. These are concepts that
may apply to
any situation -- Josephson's universal values are a good example. A critic may
choose to define the situation in relation to honesty, integrity,
promise-keeping, fidelity, fairness, care, respect, responsibility, pursuit of
personal excellence in character, or accountability. Some of these values may
be more conducive to a particular site of analysis than others. The values of
integrity, personal excellence, responsibility, and accountability may be very
helpful in defining the ethical issues in production decision-making. An
analysis of dissemination may look at fairness, care, and respect. An ethical
analysis of consumption might be described in terms of integrity,
promise-keeping, personal excellence, and responsibility. Finally, an analysis
focused on the text itself may draw on any of these principles depending on the
text's content.
To further clarify the process of describing and then defining the ethical
situation, consider the movie Pretty Woman as an example. In the first step of
an analysis looking at the moral choices modeled in the text itself, the critic
ought to describe the characters, their situations, and the context of their
interaction. The description may also detail how the main characters meet, how
their relationship develops, and key moments, scenes, or lines that contribute
to an understanding of the story. Based on the description, a critic should go
on to define ethical issues in the text. What values do each of the characters
display? What values are communicated about fidelity? Responsibility?
Respect? Accountability?
The next step in the Potter's Box model is to consider ethical principles
related to the text.
Principles attach meaning to values by assigning significance or consequences
to them. Carrying out the Pretty Woman example above, a critic might consider
the principles, "sex outside of marriage is wrong," or "prostitution is wrong."
Other principles might include "love conquers all" or "what may appear at first
to be a bad choice can have a happy ending." Cultural cliches
are a good source for brainstorming principles related to ethical choices and
situations. Ethical principles often are behind the widely held beliefs
expressed in cliches. This aspect of defining the ethical situation builds on
the relevant values by attaching significance to them as right, wrong, good, or
bad.
Finally, defining loyalties is another important step that enables a better
understanding
of the ethical problem's context. Loyalties ask the critic to consider the
variables the decision-maker had to deal with. This presents possible points of
contention and pressure that may have swayed a decision, or it may reveal a
value in terms of which loyalty won out. In Pretty Woman, some of the loyalties
may include financial success and financial survival, sexual desire, friendship,
safety, personal integrity, and high-class appearance or lifestyle. Examining
loyalties puts the ethical situation in perspective, considering all the
possible options demanding the decision-maker's attention. This often brings
the real conflict and heart of the matter into focus.
At the completion of this step, the critic should have a good idea of the
tensions the
decision-maker had to deal with and the scope of related issues that factored
into the final
decision. This step provides contextual understanding, as well as ethical
understanding due
to working with the concepts and concerns surrounding the issue being examined.
3. Determine the implications and consequences
Here is where the critic must consider the potential outcomes of the
values communicated in media entertainment. The ethical issue has been
described and defined in detail, and now the critic can do the interpretive and
evaluative work. Again, I stress that this is interpretive work, in that the
implications and consequences may not be provable facts, but there must be
enough evidence in research to lead to a logical conclusion. It may be helpful
to begin by making separate lists of "observable" implications and "probable"
implications to distinguish the two. "Observable" implications are those that
are documented in statistics or news accounts, while "probable" implications
refer to situations that may possibly occur as a result of the values
communicated but has only theoretical concepts supporting it. The details of
looking at the implications and consequences depends on the site of evaluation,
and specific examples and discussion of this process are described in the
discussion above defining the sites of production, dissemination, consumption,
and text.
4. Defend the resulting interpretation
Media criticism has no right or wrong answers, only claims well-supported
by evidence or
lacking substantial support. Once the critic has described, defined, and
determined the
consequences of a choice, it is time to formulate an evaluative assertion about
the text and
use the previous three steps to elaborate on how you arrived at that
conclusion. At this point
in the process, it is appropriate to bring in definitions of ethical standards
and cultural values.
They can serve as a measuring stick with which to compare the values,
principles, and
loyalties of the situation being critiqued. Furthermore, this is an important
step in relating
media's influence in relation to culture.
Several ethical models or standards are available to use in this step.
Josephson's Golden
Kantian Consequentialism is a good example. It combines three of the most
prominent
models of ethical decision-making: the Golden Rule, Kant's Categorical
Imperatives, and
Mill's Consequentialism. Based on what Josephson sees as the best ethical
guidelines from
each of these ethical models, he develops three key principles to guide all
ethical
decision-making:
I. All decisions must take into account and reflect a concern for
the interests and
well being of others.
II. Ethical values and principles always take precedence over
nonethical ones.
III. It is ethically proper to violate an ethical principle only
when it is clearly
necessary to advance another ethical principle which, according to
the decision
maker's conscience, will produce the greatest balance of good.
(Josephson 17)
Golden Kantian Consequentialism may be particularly useful in an ethical
analysis of production and dissemination of media entertainment. The
entertainment industry is viewed as business-minded and having little concern
with the "well being of others." An analysis of a media text with regards to
production and dissemination might look for evidence that the producers did, in
fact, try to be fair and honest in their depiction of ethnic and racial
minorities, for example. The second principle also raises the issue of business
concerns versus integrity in entertainment. A critic might question if a
particular media text appears to reflect greater value on the bottom line, or a
greater concern with ethical values. Again, analysis of production and
dissemination does not provide definitive, factual answers, but it looks at the
media text as a source of understanding the values behind production and
dissemination choices.
Finally, the third principle suggests that when two ethical principles come
into conflict, the decision-maker ought to make a choice based on what will
achieve the greater good. In the process of production, a film director or
editor may need to make a choice between showing a brutal, violent scene or
fading to black to show the passage of time after implying the ensuing action.
Showing the scene may be defended by a value of truth and honesty, yet a
director or editor may also feel a sense of responsibility, integrity, or
accountability. With two ethical values up against each other, the decision
must be made based on what is best for the story being told, the expectations of
the audience and genre, as well as other loyalties of the decision-maker.
Statements of ethical principles, such as Golden Kantian Consequentialism,
provide a point of comparison between the media text and other sources of
ethical beliefs. The principles of Golden Kantian Consequentialism serve as
guidelines that can support judgements and interpretations of media texts. In
addition to statements of guiding principles like the Golden Kantian
Consequentialism, professional standards and codes of ethics may be of use in
some situations.
The process of describing, defining, determining, and defending is merely
a guideline in conducting an ethical critique of media entertainment texts.
Some situations may not require such detail, but it is necessary to describe
before evaluating and to define the ethical issues before interpreting them.
These analytical strategies prevent bias and to implement fairness.
As previously discussed, there is no "right" or "wrong" interpretation of
media texts.
The quality of analysis is based on evidence from the text and implementation
of the key
concepts and assumptions of the analysis technique. A semiotic,
psychoanalytic, Marxist, or
social analysis of a given text may elicit a variety of responses. Every
critic sees things in a
different way, yet the criticism must be based on some common ground.
Likewise, this paper
has been an attempt at defining some of that common ground for a new analysis
technique, an
ethical analysis.
The unique contribution of an ethical critique is its attention to
uncovering the values
inherent in media production, dissemination, consumption, and texts. It is
based on the
assumptions that media texts represent a series of choices influenced by
ethical values and
frameworks, and that attention to these values is a significant factor in
understanding our
culture and society, as well as understanding the role of media in the
formation and
reproduction of cultural values. As with a semiotic, psychoanalytic, Marxist,
and social analysis of media entertainment, an ethical critique draws upon a set
of terms and ideas that were originally developed for another academic
discipline, but are applicable in discussion of media texts. An ethical
critique ought to begin by describing the choices and values observed in media
texts, followed by defining relevant concepts and ideas, determining
implications and consequences, and defending an ethical interpretation of the
text. An ethical analysis of media entertainment offers way of gaining insight
into the ethical values of our culture and media's role in creating and
recreating cultural values. An ethical analysis may also be a useful lens to
further our understanding of Gerbner's cultivation analysis, social construction
of reality, and issues of ideology and power in media texts.
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