Abstract
Women, Men and Job Satisfaction in Public Relations:
A Preliminary Analysis
Job satisfaction among public relations professionals is addressed in
this paper. The results of a random sample survey of PRSA members administered
first in 1990 and replicated in 1995 are combined with responses of six focus
groups to present a preliminary picture. The emerging pattern demonstrates the
need to address men's and women's satisfaction as different. While both genders
share some common determinants of satisfaction, they also branch widely very
early in the list.
Women, Men and Job Satisfaction in Public Relations:
A Preliminary Analysis
by
Shirley A. Serini, Ph.D.
Department of Journalism
Department of Journalism
Ball State University
Muncie, In. 47306
(317)285-8211
[log in to unmask]
Elizabeth Toth, Ph.D.
S. I. Newhouse School of Public Communication
Syracuse University
Syracuse, NY 13244
(315) 443-1909
Donald K. Wright, Ph.D.
Department of Communication
University of South Alabama
Mobile, Al 36688
(334) 380-2813
Arthur Emig, Ph.D.
Department of Communication
University of South Alabama
Mobile, Al 36688
(334) 380-2813
Presented to the
Association for Education in Journalism and Mass Communication
August 1996
Women, Men and Job Satisfaction in Public Relations
Women, Men and Job Satisfaction in Public Relations:
A Preliminary Analysis
Five years have made important differences in the level of job
satisfaction among men and women working in public relations positions, based on
the findings of the 1995 replication of the 1990 Public Relations Gender Study
sponsored by the Public Relations Society of America.
The results of this study are based on a nearly identical survey sent
to a random sample of PRSA members in 1990 and again in 1995. The major research
questions driving the results discussed here deal with the relationship between
gender and job satisfaction: 1) Is there a difference in job satisfaction
between men and women? 2) Is there a difference in the factors that influence
job satisfaction between men and women? 3) Has there been any significant change
in questions one and two between 1990 and 1995?
The preliminary results of six focus groups are also included in this
analysis as a way of providing insight into how practitioners are explaining the
results of the 1995 survey. These findings are preliminary but they illuminate
the data and present fodder for future study.
Definitions
The conceptual understanding of gender that frames this study is the
same as that used in the 1990 study. Borrowed from the feminist scholar Lana
Rakow, gender is an "organizing principle...used to classify and differentiate
humans and to give us guidelines for how we are to interact with others" (p.
289; cited in Under the Glass Ceiling: An Analysis of Gender Issues in American
Public Relations, p. 2)[1] As the authors of the 1990 study argued, "Thus, we
are not linking gender to biological differences between women and men so much
as to the way in which we make sense of our society and of the world."[2]
To understand job satisfaction, J. Grunig points to Pincus and
Rayfield's conclusion that different definitions of job satisfaction have a
"perceptual or emotional response" to certain aspects of the work environment
in common." Dervin and Voigt expand that definition somewhat: Job satisfaction
is an organizational member's perceptual response to the aspects of his or her
job and organization environment considered most important to meeting his or her
work needs/expectations.[3] Grunig also presents Locke's definition of job
satisfaction as "a pleasurable or positive emotional state resulting from the
appraisal of one's job experiences."[4] Similar to Locke, Price and Mueller
define job satisfaction as "the degree to which employees have a positive
affective orientation toward employment by the organization."[5] It is the
positive affect that is of concern here. In other words, what, in their work
situation, makes women and men happy? This simple question has profound and
far-reaching consequences on performance, retention, and overall work
environment. As the literature reveals, it is intricately intertwined with a
wide variety of variables in the work place and, increasingly and perhaps more
importantly, in the home/personal environment as well. "Job satisfaction does
not appear to be a simple or singular concept. The variety of perspectives
evident in the job satisfaction literature have evolved over time, as research
efforts have probed for more revealing explanations as to what job satisfaction
is, and perhaps more importantly, what causes it."[6] As the job satisfaction
literature evolves, wider nets are cast to both define it and to discover what
causes it.
Gender and Job Satisfaction
During the last three decades in particular, the relationship between
gender and job satisfaction has taken on an increasingly important place in
social science research in general, as well as in public relations research. In
a lengthy review of the literature, Mottaz concludes that while some studies
find women to be more satisfied than men and other studies find men to be more
satisfied than women, "the bulk of recent research suggests that men and women
do not differ significantly in overall work satisfaction."[7] Forgionne and
Peeters,[8] and Mannheim[9] come to a similar conclusion in their review of the
literature. Mannheim's study of industrial workers, and Fry and Greenfeld's
study of police officers also substantiate these findings.[10] Terborg [cited in
Fry and Greenfeld] explains the lack of difference as a rejection of gender role
stereotypes by women who pursue nontraditional careers: "once in those
positions, they have needs, motives, and values similar to men who also are in
those positions (p. 658)."[11] Fry and Greenfeld argue that the "lack of
significant differences may be attributed to the fact that men and women are
facing similar task environments and organizational control systems."[12]
The result of the inquiry into job satisfaction, while frequently
contradictory, leads to an overall understanding that there are, indeed,
differences between men's and women's levels of satisfaction with a variety of
variables related to the work environment. While a picture is beginning to
emerge, it is still little more than an outline. A review of the literature
yields a wide variety of variables associated with satisfaction that have been
examined during this time period, often with mixed results.
These include extrinsic considerations (job level,[13] tenure in the
organization,[14] pay[15], promotion[16], security,[17] fringe benefits[18]);
demographic considerations (age[19]); interpersonal relationships
(supervision[20], supervisor/boss,[21] coworkers/social relationships,[22]
networking[23]); the work itself (type of work,[24] creative artistic
beliefs/challenge,[25] extent to which their work allows them to do the things
they do best[26], complexity of the job,[27] interesting work[28]); power (both
"feeling powerful and finding gratification in that feeling"[29]; influence of
their superiors in the organization,[30]); autonomy[31]; other
intrinsic rewards[32] (perceived status,[33] importance/value of their
work,[34] work as personally gratifying,[35] work as enjoyable activity,[36] how
much they like the work[37], feelings of accomplishment[38]); family issues
(ability to spend more time with family,[39] day care,[40] parental leave,[41]
flexible hours/shifts[42]); the organization as a whole,[43] and a more global
overall satisfaction.[44]
Grunig, in particular, points to studies that have begun to separate
two levels of satisfaction: satisfaction with their work and satisfaction with
the organization as a whole.[45] His findings point to complexity of the job as
the best predictor of individual satisfaction and to "organic organizational
structure and a symmetrical communication system" as the best predictors of the
individual's satisfaction with the organization.[46]
Increasingly, concerns with working conditions that facilitate the
ability of employees in particular to participate in the dual demands of work
and family have begun to enter the list of organizational benefits tied to job
satisfaction. This is especially so for female employees. Goh, for example,
argues that while both men and women are choosing family life over careers,
generally more women are willing to make the career sacrifices to do so than are
men.[47] Maume demonstrates a clear link between weekly child-care payments and
turnover. Menger and Ellis argue that flexible work policies are critical to
employees' ability to balance family and work demands.[48] Mathys and Pincus
agree, adding day care and parental leave.[49]
More Research on Women. Phelan discusses what she calls the "paradox
of the contented female worker": while women receive less pay and have less
authority than men, they are equally satisfied. She concludes, "the paradox
results from the fact that although organizational satisfaction is related to
subjective factors such as intrinsic and importance rewards, it is not related
to salary grade for either women or men." [50] Witt and Nye found no gender
differences in the relationships between perceived fairness and job
satisfaction.[51] D'Arcy, Syrotuik and Sidique found that aspirations of female
workers are lower; yet, women tend to report higher levels of satisfaction than
men.[52] This paradoxical relationship leads Jackson to ask if then, indeed,
women don't get what they want, at least in terms of pay.[53] In noting this
phenomenon, Mottaz proposes two possible explanations: either it is because they
have lower expectations that they perceive themselves as being just as satisfied
as men or they may use qualitatively different criteria in their assessment of
work.[54] He concludes that, rather than being related to gender, overall
satisfaction is positively related to occupational level.[55] However, he argues
that gender may affect the intensity of the effects of the different
determinants of satisfaction. Phelan argues that more subjective job rewards
influence satisfaction for both men and women. Yet Nieva and Gutek find that the
lion's share of organizational rewards--pay, promotion, intrinsic, and
social--go to men.[56]
Sauser and York, on the other hand, also find wide discrepancies in
the literature, but conclude that there appear to be a common set of variables
that may correlate with gender--pay, promotion, policies, coworkers, immediate
supervision and the work itself. In a study of the influence of relationship
with supervisors, for example, Leventhal and Garcia found a strong correlation
between gender of employee, gender of supervisor and satisfaction. "Employees
were most satisfied with bosses they perceived as androgynous...followed by
feminine...masculine...and undifferentiated."[57] Goh found that women felt male
supervisors excluded them, failed to value their opinions and made them feel
isolated.[58]
Professionalism. What appears to be missing in the literature,
however, is yet a third level: the individual's satisfaction with his or her
profession, a consideration that may be quite separate from the organization and
the process of performing work within that organization. Issues of autonomy and
status, for example, are concerns in the professionalism literature.[59]
Understanding the satisfaction of public relations practitioners as members of
the public relations professional community is an integral component to
understanding their overall satisfaction as well. Their profession and the
perceptions of their profession limit and define their career path and,
ultimately, their satisfaction with that path.
Public Relations. Of particular interest is the relationship between
gender and job satisfaction among public relations workers. Earlier work by
Broom and Dozier explore the relationship between role and satisfaction. While
they found managers were more satisfied than technicians in 1979, they found
little difference between the two when they replicated the study in 1985:
managers had decreased in their satisfaction and technicians had increased,
closing the gap.[60] Dozier explained the high level of technician's
satisfaction as relating to the "strong link" between creative artistic beliefs
about public relations and the technician role.[61] Yet in 1981, Dozier found
that movement into the management arena resulted in increasing satisfaction.[62]
L. Grunig noted that studies showed that while the "double life" of the boundary
spanning public relations practitioner might result in a decrease of
satisfaction, satisfaction among public relations practitioners "should"
increase as the top people in their department become more influential in the
organization.[63]
Other studies reveal different relationships among public relations
practitioners. Jacobson and Tortorello found a relationship between age, gender
and satisfaction among PRSA members: senior men were more likely than senior
women to be satisfied (62% men vs. 53% women).[64] In keeping with studies in
other fields, Selnow and Wilson found male public relations practitioners value
security more than female practitioners; and the women value social
relationships more.[65] They also found that women were significantly more
likely to report the creative challenge and pay as being less satisfying than
the men.[66] Lastly, the results of the 1990 PRSA Gender Study showed that women
were generally "less positive about their current job situations than men."[67]
Methodology
This is an analysis of the job satisfaction section of a larger
research project. The project incorporated quantitative and qualitative
methodologies as a means to obtain both descriptive and explanatory data. It is
a replication of a study done in 1990 by a research team commissioned to survey
a large sample of the PRSA membership.
The 1990 six-page survey was mailed to a simple random sample of
2,785 members of PRSA and received 1,026 responses for a 37% response rate. Of
those, 58% (n=596) were men and 42% (n=431) were women. In 1995, a nearly
identical six-page survey was mailed to a simple random sample of PRSA members
and received 678 responses, which represents a 45% return rate. Of these, 63%
were women and 37% were men. Correlations between the 1990 and 1995 respondants
were run to ascertain movement, if any, during that time.
Subjects were asked to answer a 14-item Job Satisfaction Index that
contained questions constructed from occupational satisfaction questions asked
in previous research. They used a Likert Scale that ranged from one as extremely
dissatisfied to five as extremely satisfied, with three as uncertain/not
sure/don't know. Topics included satisfaction with present job, public relations
as an occupation, income, prestige of working in public relations, perceived
value of job to society, job security and how subjects' family/friends feel
about them working in public relations, advancement opportunities, future
prospects, autonomy, recognition, and knowledge of communication skills and of
public relations. (See Table 1.)
In addition, eight focus groups were held in four cities: Chicago,
Seattle, Washington D.C. and New York. The New York groups were only recently
completed and will not be included in this analysis. In each of the other three
cities, two focus groups were held during the months of October through December
in 1995: one with men moderated by a man and one with women moderated by a
woman. The average length of the discussion was two hours. Table 1. Job
Satisfaction
Scale: 1=extremely dissatisfied 4=satisfied
2=dissatisfied 5=extremely satisfied
3=uncertain/not sure/don't know
Question: How satisfied are you with...
Men Men Women Women
1990 1995 1990 1995
Current Workplace Conditions
income 3.5 3.3 3.1 3.3
present job in Public Relations 4.0 3.8 3.7 3.8
advancement opportunities
with present employer 3.3 3.0 3.0 3.2
job security in present position 3.9 3.7 3.8 3.7
prospects for your future
with present employer 3.7 3.4 3.3 3.5
prospects for your future
in Public Relations 3.9 3.8 3.8 3.8
Professional Issues:
autonomy and freedom in present job 4.2 4.1 4.0 4.1
recognition received from superiors 3.6 3.5 3.4 3.5
Knowledge of Public Relations:
knowledge of PR communication skills 4.1 4.2 3.9 3.9
overall knowledge of PR 4.1 4.1 3.9 3.9
Value of Public Relations Work:
Public Relations as an occupation 4.1 4.0 4.1 4.0
prestige of working in Public Relations 3.4 3.3 3.4 3.3
how you think your family/friends feel
about you working in Public Relations 3.8 3.9 4.0 4.0
value of your job to society 3.7 3.6 3.5 3.4
They were videotaped and transcribed. Size of the groups ranged from
four to ten participants in addition to the moderator.
While there was some variety in participants, effort was made to
maintain relative homogeneity within them. The target public of concern in the
focus groups were those practitioners--men and women--who were at the point in
their career paths where movement upward would be a salient issue. With few
exceptions, they ranged in age from 25 to 45 and in experience from 5 to 15
years. Effort was made to have a wide variety of voices represented in terms of
workplace (agency, corporate, not-for-profit, etc.) and position (management and
non-management). Participants were almost entirely Caucasian, and they worked in
a variety of office settings in terms of size and location in the organization.
Participants were given a summary statement of the findings as well
as the three questions noted below and asked to respond to the questions and/or
information they found to be interesting:
y How do you account for this change in both women's and
men's satisfaction during the past five years?
y Does this reflect your experience and the experience of
public relations practitioners you know?
y Are there any other comments you would like to make about
job satisfaction?
Their answers appear below.
Demographic Profiles
1990 Survey Demographics. The 1990 survey was sent to 20% of PRSA's
membership responded to the survey, 1,027 of whom responded (37% response rate).
Of those, 58% (N=596) were female and 42% (N=431) were male. The median age for
women was 35 years and for men 45 years. The median number of years in the field
was 11. Men had worked in the field a median of 16 years and women a median of
nine years. Salaries range from $22,5000 to $74,000.
1995 Survey Demographics. Surveys were sent to 1,500 randomly
selected members of PRSA, 678 of whom responded (N=45%). Of those responding,
658 answered the gender question, yielding 36% males (n=240) and 63% females
(n=418), nearly one-third of whom are PRSA accredited. They range in age from 21
to 91, with an average age of 39 and a mode of 35. The majority work in urban
locations, hold a bachelor's degree and are Caucasian. Nearly one-third hold
master's degrees. The size of their offices range from one person to 99+, with a
mean of seven. The one-person office is the mode. In terms of type of work
place, men dominate the Education category. Women dominate the Health/Welfare
and the "Other" categories, which includes not-for-profit organizations. Men and
women are basically equal in the other types of organizations, and the majority
of both work in either agencies or corporations. The average number of years in
the field is 13.5, but the mode is 10 years. Salaries range from $5,200 to
$943,999, with a mean of $53,254 and a mode of $40,000.
1995 Focus Group Demographics. The discussion presented here comes
from the men's and women's focus groups held in Chicago, Seattle and Washington
D.C. during the months of October through December in 1995. They almost entirely
ranged in age between 25 and 45, and in years of experience between 5 and 15.
They were a mix of management and non-management, and of type of public
relations work (agency, corporate, etc.) They were predominately Caucasian and
worked in a variety of office settings in terms of size and location in the
organization.
Quantitative Results
While nearly all respondents--89% of the men and 92% of the
women--agreed that they like the kind of work that they do, both groups are only
moderately satisfied with most aspects of their work and professional status.
They were least satisfied with their income, the amount of recognition they
receive, the prestige of working in public relations, and their advancement
potential and prospects for the future with their current employer.
The 1995 overall scores were consistent when segmented by
accreditation status and by place of work. Those who are accredited were
slightly higher on satisfaction than the non accredited. Those who work in
agencies and education are slightly higher than those who work in corporations,
health/welfare organizations or trade/professional associations.
Government/military workers are slightly lower.
In terms of overall satisfaction levels, men and women differed
slightly in 1990: The mean score for men was 3.8 and for women 3.6 on a 5-point
scale where 5 is extremely satisfied and 3 is uncertain. In 1995, the mean score
for both men and women was the same: 3.7. (See Table 2.) This suggests three
things:
y Women are somewhat more satisfied with their public
relations positions today than they were five years ago.
y Men are somewhat less satisfied with their public
relations positions today than five years ago.
y Men and women appear to be equally satisfied with their
public relations positions today, but the level of that
satisfaction is
moderate at best.
It is the synthesis of their responses that is presented below.
Table 2. Job Satisfaction Index Scores
1990 Job 1995 Job
Satisfaction Satisfaction
Score Score
Total Sample 3.7 3.7
Men 3.8 3.7
Women 3.6 3.7
Qualitative Responses
While both the men's focus groups and the women's focus groups shared
some similar concerns, the contexts and language they chose to discuss the same
body of material were at times very similar and other times remarkably
different. What is presented here is a synthesis of the discussions held in
three cities. The findings are arranged first by gender. Broken down within that
context will be the categories of content each group chose to engage in its
discussion of the specific issue of job satisfaction. In the administration of
the focus group, job satisfaction was preceded only by demographics of the
survey sample. As the groups moved through the entire format, other discussions
also involved job satisfaction. This preliminary analysis, however, includes
only the discussion that ensued in response to the job satisfaction survey
results.
Men Talk about Job Satisfaction
The majority of the conversation for the men's groups was focused on
explaining their dissatisfaction and women's satisfaction. In the context of
these discussions, men engaged their concerns with the entry of women into the
profession, the prestige of the profession, and the effects of cutbacks. They
talked about how they defined themselves and what, among the array of possible
job satisfaction components, was most important to them. They also, however, saw
"some sort of equity between the two genders," in the identical indexes. "As
managers we might be doing something right as far as equal opportunity," one
said.
Entry of Women into the Field. The increase in the number of women
entering the field is clearly a concern to men in general. They made mention of
the "skewing" of workplace opportunities in favor of women to "make up for any
past inequality." They noted that because the field has become female dominated,
men may be less able than women to achieve higher levels in the organization.
They also saw the competition in public relations as being different than in
other industries primarily because there are more women than men in public
relations.
Respect. The prestige of the profession among peers inside the
organization and in the public arena was important. Men defined the prestige of
the profession in comparison with other people and other careers as well as to
the market place in general. Competition is an important element in that
definition.
They didn't see themselves as being respected among their peers. "A
corporate communication position doesn't carry the same sort of weight on the
officer's scale" as others do, one argued. "You feel like you have to do more to
justify what it is you do," said another one. Yet a third argued that public
relations practitioners are not looked upon as "strategic partners in business."
Being valued by management was important to them, yet they tended to feel they
were viewed as more on the edge than as integral to the organization.
Despite the uneasiness with prestige, some saw themselves as being
viewed by those outside the field as in a "power" position, as "inside" the
political structure because they were so close to policy making.
Effects of Cutbacks. Because the profession is under appreciated and
misunderstood, public relations is one of the first things to get hit during
tough economic times, the men claim. They lay much of the blame for lack of
satisfaction at the feet of the environment of economic recession that has
plagued the American workplace during the past five years. In that context, they
cite lack of promotions and raises as eroding satisfaction. More importantly,
however, they note that the recession hit upper and middle management hardest,
and those positions were predominantly filled with men. The ones who survived
are often working for a reduced title and an increased job description: there
was general agreement that one person may be doing what several did years ago,
and that whoever was left is now taking on the role of the senior executive
"without the pay and the perks." They also argue that, because men have been
around longer, they have the background of the more lush economic times to which
to compare the new leaner corporate structures. Even before the cutbacks,
however, there were very few highly paid positions in the public relations arena
into which anyone could advance.
As more women enter the field, men may be making other choices. "It
seems to me that they [men] are leaving the profession," one participant said.
"I don't know if men are saying, okay, well we're going to stick on that hard
core business side and let the women do the communications aspect." Downsizing
was a boon for women, the men note. First, as men were eliminated from
management positions, other places opened in the organization. Because women
were in line for advanced positions, they were able to move up more quickly than
might have been otherwise possible. Those positions were not as senior, nor were
they as well-paying, but they were upward movement. Men also argued that women
had the advantage of not being in the upper positions during the lush times, so
they weren't as likely to be dissatisfied about having to do more with less as
the men.
Pay. The men argued that no one ever is satisfied with their
earnings, so they really didn't even see that as an argument worth pursuing. In
the economic environment of the past five years, they argued that there simply
weren't a great deal of financial increases. What did concern them, however, was
the justice of pay. "There's a difference between feeling like you're making
enough money to get by on and how much money you feel you should be worth or you
deserve to be making."
Dealing with Cynicism/Rejection/Disillusionment. They discussed an
eroding of satisfaction through cynicism from the client, the media, and the
realities of the profession. They talked about how hard it is to work when the
client and/or the media, with whom they must interact on a regular basis, either
treat them with disrespect or reject them. That is particularly so with the
media, who reject their pitches on a daily basis. It is discouraging at times to
deal with negative attitudes day after day.
They also spoke about the disillusionment of the young people
entering the field. Entry level applicants have "unrealistic expectation levels"
and so it is easy for them to be dissatisfied early in their careers. "Grads
think the job is glamorous---think they're going to do campaigns and make $45 to
$50,000 a year." And they did allude to the general malaise of society today:
"It's a reflection of society as a whole...there's more dissatisfaction with
everything...newspapers...the kinds of things that are happening. I think people
are...unhappy."
Self-Definition. They also saw themselves as defining themselves by
their job. When men introduce themselves, they noted, "What do you do?" is often
the first question they ask. "We feel...more of an obligation to take care of
our families, even if we're in a dual working kind of an environment, where as I
think for women in some cases it's not as big a deal for them...they define
themselves by...family, marital status."
Explaining Women's Job Satisfaction. Men saw public relations as a
good profession for women. Because it requires less education [unlike medicine
or law] women didn't have to worry about "giving up" the small financial
investment in an undergraduate degree when they want to take time to have a
family. As a result, public relations was seen as "accommodating" women who want
to have a family." The men also saw a greater availability of public relations
positions for women [see discussion under "cutbacks" above.].
Women Talk about Job Satisfaction
The difference in attitude and priorities between men and women is
interesting. Where as the men tended to see the rather bleak remains of the
"crisis" level changes in American business over the last five years, the women
seem to find a freshness and openness in the changing environment. Some of that,
they argue, comes from the entry of women into the workplace. As one woman
explained:
There's been a change of attitude in America [brought about
by the influx of women in the workforce combined with the end of
conspicuous consumption of the 1980s and resulting in a]
softening of
corporate America, a softening of consumer's
perceptions...There's
businesses who are having to now kind of look internally and say
what am I
going to give back now instead of what I'm going to get all the
time. And
maybe that's because there's more women in the workforce. They
have a
stronger voice as consumers, they have the stronger voice being
involved in
corporations and a stronger voice being involved in public
relations.
Women talk about job satisfaction in terms of new opportunities;
changing workplaces; the change in women; respect for women, their needs and
their profession; improving benefits; and workplace challenges. They talk openly
about having needs other than job titles met in the new environment. They
identified a perceived need for the "sensitivity" women bring to today's
workplace. They also engaged discussions on how the lack of these elements adds
to dissatisfaction for many. "The longer you're in a profession too, you start
to see more of the negative...realizing what you can change and what you can't
change."
Entry of Women into the Field. Women in the field are changing not
only the mix of opportunities available to women, but they, as managers, are
beginning to clear the way for the new generations who follow them. Women feel
that many of the changes that make it possible for them to work and have a
family are the result of women not only entering the field but holding
management-level positions. Increased workplace flexibility and benefits make
balancing work and family life less stressful for women.
The change in attitude toward family needs makes it possible to be
open about doing such things as leaving to take care of children. One woman told
of how until recent years women would never even speak about their children or
their children's needs. They would make up other excuses if their child was ill
and they had to leave the workplace to tend to him or her. Women also felt that
their career choices re supported by both their family and industry in general.
They also argued that there is a different kind of woman in the
workforce today: She is more confident and assertive. There is a strong sense of
empowerment and, as a result, of being taken more seriously in the work place.
Adding to this is the tendency of women managers to seek other's opinions. There
are also more women in place to mentor women who are new to the field, which
increases their sense of confidence.
Respect. Women are concerned about respect from their bosses, their
organizations and the public. They discussed the need to feel the work they do
is respected and valued. One said public relations has not only "moved up in the
eyes of management," but that public relations is a "more integral part in the
firm's management and strategies," which added to her satisfaction.
They also felt that increased understanding on the part of both
management and the public contributed to their satisfaction with their work.
"The general public is more aware of what public relations is...I don't have to
explain my job as much as I used to," one said. Another said it was important
"to have customers and management believe and understand that what I do isn't
just robotics." Yet another was pleased with how the "CEOs understand the value
of public relations and are more reliant on public relations counsel and
advice." Another, however, expressed dissatisfaction in the anit-public
relations bias of the Human Resources Department, which controlled resources for
the public relations function.
Others felt almost victimized by what they described as factors
beyond their control: "You're always sort of up against the corporate
culture...you might be labeled as a troublemaker and someone who's not a team
player," said one. She added that she was "sick of the words team player."
Another described as "frustrating" the way "top management has a certain
vision...but you have to sort of go along with what they want even thought you
know that's not the way to do it."
Effects of Cutbacks. As a result of the tightening of the economy and
downsizing, women see a mixed bag. Some see fewer positions at the upper levels
and, as a result, a lack of upward mobility. One woman was denied early
retirement because of the company's downsizing which meant the position for
which she was groomed was blocked. Similarly, there's no one coming in
underneath, so "there's no one to delegate it to and you just feel like what's
my pay off?" They feel they are having to perform tasks they shouldn't because
there fewer people on staff. Additionally, with cyclical budgeting, the rules
are in a constant state of flux. One woman told of how they had to cut their
publications. No sooner had they done so when someone new was hired and that
person first added the publication back and then out source them. She found the
ongoing redirection to be frustrating.
Other women see not only more opportunities to obtain positions at
higher levels available to them, but a broader range of choices as well. They
found both to be equally satisfying. They talked about the different types or
aspects or niches in public relations, and about how they could find a variety
of places to do the work they enjoy. The also felt the field is open to them.
"You don't feel stuck in your job like you used to be," one woman commented.
Unlike five years ago, the women feel they can control their own careers and
lives.
By the same token, others were frustrated by the increasingly common
need to leave the organization in order to get to the next level. They felt that
they invested a great deal of themselves in their work and that, by having to
leave the place where they made that investment, they were being cheated out of
a return on that investment.
Pay. Pay was mentioned in the satisfaction discussion, but its
significance was more important than its amount. Not just compensation, but how
compensation is handled and what it reflects in terms of value to the
organization was the key. One woman told a story of how she was denied a raise
and, when she challenged it, the company gave her an award, a plaque and $300 in
gift certificates. They were "kind of throwing me a bone," she said. "What I
want is to be shown I value you, I want to keep you here, I value what you
contribute to this organization, not you did a good job, here's a pat on the
back , you did a great job, here's a couple things to make you happy."
Recognition. They did feel, however, that being recognized for what
they do and having people appreciate their contributions were also an important
part of satisfaction. "I do get a lot of recognition [from my CEO] it gives me a
lot of pride to make her [the CEO] look good." Those who did not receive that
recognition added that the lack of it contributed to their dissatisfaction. Part
of that recognition is feeling that they are valued members of the organization.
However, recognition in lieu of pay was seen as insulting and demoralizing, as
noted above.
Personal Gratification. Women addressed the need for a sense of
personal gratification and deeper meaning in their work. As one woman asked,
"Would I give my life for public relations?. . .What sort of personal
gratification and fulfillment do I get on the job...What difference does my job
really mean? I still don't fully understand what putting a brochure together
does in the bigger scheme of things."
Challenging Work. They talked about the need to be challenged. "Just
as important as [compensation] is challenging work, feeling like you really are
contributing to the organization, not just doing busy work."
Autonomy. They also discussed the importance of being able to work
independently and not have to deal with "red tape" in accomplishing their work
as being part of how they defined satisfaction.
Male-Centric Nature of the Workplace. They were concerned about the
lack of respect for women at the higher levels. One woman said that people in
the organization where she was being groomed for a management position "were
very uncomfortable with [the possibility of] a woman in the upper level...people
just said to me, you're not going to get invited to all the meetings...you're
going to feel very left out, you're just not going to be comfortable. It's very
much a circle of pretty much all males." Another talked about how the way men
and women communicate keeps women from being in the top tier of the
organization.
Explaining Men's Job Satisfaction. Women defined men as being
"nervous" about the entry of women in large numbers into public relations: women
get a bigger piece of the pie because more people vie for same position now and
they often get a bigger share because they are willing to accept less. This
reduces what men can gain/earn over time, which lowers their satisfaction. Women
also allude to the exodus of men from the field or, as one woman observed, from
the traditional roles held by public relations practitioners: "Somehow men
either re-define their roles or they create other job opportunities for
themselves to kind of remove themselves from that level with women." "Men pretty
much see that their career path in PR had better lead to one of those cushy
director of public relations positions where they can have some sort of
authority and/or leadership positions," one woman said. To add to this, women
are "willing to take different types of positions that men wouldn't necessarily
take before and it's ...redefining whole roles. It's making men redefine their
roles." Which means they lose control, which adds to their nervousness.
In addition, they argue that men feel intimidated by situations where
the majority of the public relations personnel are women and they will attempt
to leave because they feel outnumbered. Another woman talked about her husband
who left public relations because he had "difficulty being in an industry where
he was not in the center of it...he wasn't part of the product."
The "new" kind of woman in the workforce today also makes men
nervous, the women argue. "A bright young women coming along with greater
technology experience...and willing to take the lower paying jobs." These are
the "eager beavers" who used to be the new young man in the organization. "Now
it's some young woman who maybe looks more attractive to the corporation."
Discussion
The literature presented a mixed bag of results--some argued that men
and women are alike in how they judge job satisfaction; others argued that they
are different. Based on these discussions, both sides of the argument are right,
depending on the characteristics at stake. The men and women who participated in
the focus groups for this study share some job satisfaction characteristics and
hold others that are different. The two elements of greatest common concern are
the effects of the recession of the early 1990s and of the entry of women into
the field. Clearly, both saw those as shaping the job market as well as their
individual jobs.
What the genders share is an increased frustration with what appears
to be the closing of the higher-level positions for public relations
practitioners at the organizational level as a result of cutbacks. The uneven
career path of public relations practitioners--of moving out in order to move
up--was also a common issue. They are also concerned with the credibility of
public relations in the marketplace and in the organization. Pay for both
genders is an issue of justice as much as and perhaps even more so than
amount--the question for both appears to be "Am I paid what I am worth?" Both
groups also felt that being valued and recognized for what they do is important.
The men tend to be more competitive--they admit to defining
themselves by their work, their level, and how they compare to other people in
the marketplace, not just among their public relations peers. They also seem
somehow sadder--they talk about dealing with cynicism, rejection and
disillusionment; they almost mourn the loss of what they had in the 1980s in
terms of position, pay and perks. Power and control seem to be important issues
for them as well.
The women bring a wider range of variables to the table. They talk
about flexibility and the ability to be a woman of family as well as a woman of
profession as important to satisfaction. The talk about empowering, taking
control over their lives, mentoring, and being assertive and confident. They are
concerned about the still-present male-centricity in the corporate structure,
but they also see themselves as bringing new sensitivities to the workplace.
They talked about the need for gratification, fulfillment, of feeling like they
make a difference in their work. Challenge and autonomy also seem important to
job satisfaction for women. They also seem to be generally more positive about
the field.
Preliminary Conclusions
Is there a difference in job satisfaction between men and women?
Overall, no. Is there a difference in the factors that influence job
satisfaction between men and women? For some factors the answer is yes, for
others the answer is no. At least some of those differences can be attributed to
gender. Has there been any significant change in questions one and two between
1990 and 1995? The answer is yes: In both the quantitative and the qualitative
responses, there is movement for both genders.
Of particular interest is the element of the non-traditional career
path created by the downsizing of American business and of personal credibility,
especially for women planning to move into management positions. These have not
been addressed in the job satisfaction literature to date, and they need to be
incorporated into the emerging body of research on job satisfaction.
While much remains to be done in terms of additional analysis of this
study's data, the pattern that appears to be emerging is the need to address
men's and women's satisfaction as different. While both genders share some
common determinants of satisfaction, they also branch widely very early in the
list. More work needs to be done to develop models that will allow for both
similarities and differences. While much has changed in the workplace, much has
also remained the same.
What does seem to be emerging, however, among the cohort defined for
this study (5-15 years of experience, 25-45 years of age) is a greater
understanding of and sensitivity toward the demons and successes of the other
gender. Both groups appear to be willing to respect the other, and, perhaps more
importantly, to engage the dialogue on the issues in ways that will result in
compromise and benefit for both. There was little, if any, derision on either
gender's part for the other. The transition of women into the workplace appears
to be moving from the crisis stage of the 1980s into a genuine negotiation stage
from which the profession and the workplace will eventually emerge stronger and,
perhaps, with a different set of values that combines the best of both. As
Phelan points out, "even if the basic causes of gender inequality in the
workplace are identified, corrective measures are not likely to follow if
working women and men accept the existing inequalities as just."[68] The
willingness on both sides to work toward just solutions is especially critical
at this point in the evolution of a workplace where people can be satisfied.
Notes
[1] Donald K. Wright, Larrisa A. Grunig, Jeffrey K. Springston
and Elizabeth Lance Toth, Under the Glass Ceiling: An Analysis of
Gender
Issues in American Public Relations, Public Relations Society of
America
Foundation Monograph Series 1.2 (November 1991).
[2] IBID, p. 2.
[3] Organizational Communication and Job Satisfaction: A
Metaresearch Perspective," in Progress in Communication
Sciences," Brenda
Dervin & Melvin J. Voigt, editors Vol. 9 (Ablex Publishing
Corporation:
Norwood) 1989: 183-208; p. 189.
[4] Qtd. in James Grunig, "Symmetrical Systems of Internal
Communication," Excellence in Public Relations and Communications
Management , ed. James Grunig, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc
(1992):
531-576; p. 550.
[5] James L. Price and Charles W. Mueller, Handbook of
Organizational Measurement, (Longman Inc.: White Plains) 1986,
p. 215.
[6] Dervin & Voigt, "Organizational Communication and Job
Satisfaction," p. 186.
[7] Clifford Mottaz, Gender Differences in Work Satisfaction,
Work-Related Rewards and Values, and the Determinants of Work
Satisfaction," Human Relations, 39.4 (1986): 359-378.
[8] Guisseppi A. Forgionne and Vivian E. Peeters, "Differences
in Job Motivation and Satisfaction Among Female and Male
Managers," Human
Relations, 35.2 (1982): 101-118; p. 111.
[9] Bilha Mannheim, "Male and Female Industrial Workers," Work
and Occupations, 10.4 (November 1983): 413-436
[10]
IBID; Louis W. Fry and Sue Greenfeld, "Short Note: An
Examination of Attitudinal Differences Between Policewomen and
Policemen,"
Journal of Applied Psychology, 65.1 (1980)f: 123-126.
[11] IBID
[12] IBID, p. 125.
[13] William I. Sauser, Jr. and C. Michael York, "Sex
Differences in Job Satisfaction: A Re-Examination," Personnel
Psychology,
31. (1978): 537-547; Dozier, "Organizational Roles of
Practitioners,"
Excellence in Public Relations and Communications Management:.;
Clifford
Mottaz, "Gender Differences in Work Satisfaction."
[14] Sauser and York, "Sex Differences in Job Satisfaction.
[15] See, for example, James L. Price and Charles W. Mueller,
Handbook of Organizational Measurement, (Longman Inc.: White
Plains) 1986,
p. 215; William I. Sauser, Jr. and C. Michael York, "Sex
Differences in Job
Satisfaction: A Re-Examination," Personnel Psychology, 31.
(1978): 537-547;
Clifford Mottaz, Gender Differences in Work Satisfaction,
Work-Related
Rewards and Values, and the Determinants of Work Satisfaction,"
Human
Relations, 39.4 (1986): 359-378; Gary W. Selnow and Shelly
Wilson, "Sex
Roles and Job Satisfaction in Public Relations," PR Review 11.4
(Winter
1985): 38-47.
[16] Price and Mueller, Handbook of Organizational Measurement
[17] Selnow and Wilson, "Sex Roles and Job Satisfaction in
Public Relations.".
[18] Mottaz, "Gender Differences and the Determinants of Work
Satisfaction."
[19] Sauser and York, "Sex Differences in Job Satisfaction;
David Y. Jacobson and Nicholas J. Tortorello, "Seniority Brings
Higher
Salaries, More Responsible Positions," Public Relations Journal
48.8
(August 1992):20-21; p. 21
[20] Price and Mueller, Handbook of Organizational Measurement,
p. 215.
[21] Gloria Leventhal and Victoria Garcia, "An Examination of
Personal and Situational Factors which Affect Female Managers and
Their
Employees," Psychological Reports 68.3, (June 1991): 835-348;
Swee C. Goh,
"Sex Differences in Perceptions of Interpersonal Work Style,
Career
Emphasis, Supervisory Mentoring Behavior, and Job Satisfaction,"
Sex Roles:
A Journal of Research 24.11/12 (June 1991): 701-710; p. 708;
Mottaz,
"Gender Differences in Work Satisfaction."
[22] Price and Mueller, Handbook of Organizational Measurement,
, p. 215; Leventhal and Garcia, "An Examination of Personal and
Situational Factors; Goh, "Sex Differences in Perceptions," p.
708; Mottaz,
"Gender Differences in Work Satisfaction"; Selnow and Wilson,
"Sex Roles
and Job Satisfaction in Public Relation."
[23] Eve Menger and Melinda Ellis, "Diversity Fosters
Innovation," Chemtech 24.2 (February 1994): 15-17.
[24] Price and Mueller, Handbook of Organizational Measurement,
p. 215.
[25] Dozier, "Organizational Roles of Practitioners," Excellence
in Public Relations and Communications Management; Selnow and
Wilson, "Sex
Roles and Job Satisfaction in Public Relations."
[26]
[27] J. Grunig, "Symmetrical Systems of Internal Communication."
[28] Mottaz, "Gender Differences in Work Satisfaction."
[29] Sharon Rae Jenkins, "Need for Power and Women's Careers
Over 14 Years: Structural Power, Job Satisfaction, and Motive
Change,"
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 66.1 (January
1994): 155-165,
p. 155.
[30] L. Grunig, "Power in the Public Relations Department"
Excellence in Public Relations and Communications Management, ed.
James
Grunig, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc (1992): 531-576; p. 550.
[31] J. Grunig, "Symmetrical systems of Internal Communication.
[32] Jo Phelan, "The Paradox of the Contented Female Worker: An
Assessment of Alternative Explanations," Social Psychology
quarterly, 57.2
(1994): 95-107, p. 103; Glen M. Broom and David M. Dozier,
"Advancement for
Public Relations Role Models," PR Review 12.1 (Spring 1986):
37-56.
[33] Broom and Dozier, "Advancement for Public Relations Role
Models."
[34] Phelan, "The Paradox of the Contented Female Worker.
[35] Broom and Dozier, "Advancement for Public Relations Role
Models."
[36] Broom and Dozier, "Advancement for Public Relations Role
Models."
[37] Broom and Dozier, "Advancement for Public Relations Role
Models."
[38] Broom and Dozier, "Advancement for Public Relations Role
Models."
[39] Goh, "Sex Differences in Perception."
[40] Nicholas J. Mathys and Laura B. Pincus, "Is Pay Equity
Equitable? A Perspective that Looks Beyond Pay," Labor Law
Journal, 44.6
(June 1993): 351-360; p.359
[41] IBID
[42] Mathys and Pincus, "Is Pay Equity Equitable?"
[43] J. Grunig, "Symmetrical Systems of Internal Communication."
[44] Broom and Dozier, "Advancement for Public Relations Role
Models."
[45] J. Grunig, "Symmetrical Systems of Internal Communication."
[46] J. Grunig, "Symmetrical Systems of Internal Communication."
[47]
Goh, "Sex Differences in Perceptions," p. 703.
[48] Menger and Ellis, "Diversity Fosters Innovation,"
[49] Mathys and Pincus, "Is Pay Equity Equitable?"
[50] Phelan, "The Paradox of the Contented Female Worker."
[51] A. Alan Witt and Lendell G. Nye, "Gender and the
Relationship Between Perceived Fairness of Pay or Promotion and
Job
Satisfaction," Journal of Applied Psychology, 77.6 (December
1992):
910-917.
[52] Carl D'Arcy, John Syrotuik and C. M. Siddique, "Perceived
Job Attributes, Job Satisfaction, and Psychological Distress: A
Comparison
of Working Men and Women," Human Relations, 37.8 (1984), pp.
603-611.
[53] Linda A. Jackson, "Relative Deprivation and the Gender Wage
Gap," Journal of Social Issues, 45.5, (1989), pp. 117-133.
[54] Mottaz, "Gender Differences in Work Satisfaction."
[55] Mottaz, "Gender Differences in Work Satisfaction."
[56] Veronica F. Nieva and Barbara A. Gutek, Women and Work: A
Psychological Perspective (Praeger: New York) 1981; p. 105.
[57] Leventhal and Garcia, "An Examination of Personal and
Situational Factors."
[58]
Goh, "Sex Differences in Perceptions," p. 708.
[59] Shirley A. Serini, "Perceptions of Public Relations
Professionalism Held by Undergraduates Studying Public
Relations," paper
presented to the International Association of Business
Communicators,
Toronto, CA, 1995.
[60] Broom and Dozier, "Advancement for Public Relations Role
Models," p. 351.
[61] Dozier, "Organizational Roles of Communications and Public
Relations Practitioners," Excellence in Public Relations and
Communications
Management: ed. James Grunig, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc
(1992):
327-357.
[62] Cited in L. Grunig, "Power in the Public Relations
Department" Excellence in Public Relations and Communications
Management,
ed. James Grunig, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc
(1992):483-502; p. 490.
[63] L. Grunig, "Power in the Public Relations Department"
Excellence in Public Relations and Communications Management.
[64] Jacobson and Tortorello
[65] Selnow and Wilson, "Sex Roles and Job Satisfaction in
Public Relations,."
[66] IBID
[67] Wright et. al Under the Glass Ceiling, p. 14.
[68] Phelan, "The Paradox of the Contented Female Worker," p.
95.
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