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COMPANIONSHIP IN THE CLASSIFIEDS:
THE ADOPTION OF PERSONAL ADVERTISEMENTS BY
DAILY NEWSPAPERS
Debra L. Merskin
University of Oregon
Mara Huberlie
Syracuse University
COMPANIONSHIP IN THE CLASSIFIEDS: THE ADOPTION OF
PERSONAL ADVERTISEMENTS BY DAILY NEWSPAPERS
ABSTRACT
This study investigates advertising for romantic partners in the daily
newspaper. A telephone survey of U.S. daily newspapers shows
that
mate-finding is becoming a matter of mediated information, suggesting
a new
function for the media. Media dependency theory predicts that individuals
will tend to turn to the mass media for this information. The adoption of
innovation model explains the process needed to do so.
COMPANIONSHIP IN THE CLASSIFIEDS: THE ADOPTION OF PERSONAL ADVERTISEMENTS
BY DAILY NEWSPAPERS
Finding a romantic partner is an age-old process. In modern times,
finding a partner has become complicated by urbanization and social and
geographic mobility. This has resulted in a loss of personal contacts
for
locating and identifying eligible others. Consequently, many singles
have
turned to less personal means of securing a partner.
Today, opportunities for meeting others can be found in the daily
newspaper. This medium is relied upon as a source of many kinds of
important information, such as identifying employment opportunities,
locating housing, and now, finding a partner. This change from
traditional
means of securing a partner in the United States suggests that mass media
serve a new function--that of interpersonal intermediary.
Few studies have looked at dependency on the mass media as a part of
everyday life. This study suggests that media dependency theory predicts
the use of the mass media for mate-seeking, in the absence of other
more
personal sources of information. A telephone survey was conducted
among
67 metropolitan daily newspapers. The findings describe how daily
newspapers have responded to readers needs by adding personal
advertisements to their repertoire of features.
BACKGROUND
Clearly, whatever form courtship, betrothal and marriage take within
different cultures, their function is to mark the passage from one status
to another, such as from youth to maturity, outsideness to belonging,
and
aloneness to companionship. The importance of marriage changes as
societies become increasingly industrialized, urbanized and modernized.
Searching for Companionship.
Methods of mate-seeking vary by culture. In many cases, parents select
partners for their children. For example, in traditional Arab
society,
systems of infant betrothal and cross-cousin marriage are not uncommon
.[1]
In traditional/tribal societies, such as that of the Trobriand
Islanders,
partner selection is left largely to the whims of youth. According to
Malinowski, young persons in this society cohabitate to find compatible
partners. Among the Yanomama Indians of the Amazon, securing wives is
often accomplished through acquisitions of women by force from other
tribes.[2]
In many societies, the role of matchmaker is important. Japan has a
particularly long tradition of matchmaking, facilitated by an individual
known as the nakado. The nakado is responsible for introducing
prospective partners to one another, for carrying on background
investigations, and for officiating at the marriage ceremony. According to
Dore, the arranged marriage (miai-kekkon) means that the parties have been
brought together expressly to be married on the initiative of parents, a
friend of the family or by way of a go-between.[3] Evidence that
this system
is still in use was the 1993 marriage of Japan's Prince Naruhito to Masako
Owada.[4]
Another well-known example of the arranged marriage can be found in Jewish
culture. Marriage is one of the most important milestones in the lives of
Jewish men and women. A matchmaker (shadkan) often arranges meetings
between young people. Popular portrayals, such as in the film Crossing
Delancey and in plays such as Fiddler on the Roof and Hello, Dolly!,
depict
the duties of this individual.
Throughout the world, drastic changes have been taking place in the ways
in which people select mates. Some say that parental involvement is
declining, or even extinct, and that individual choice is an increasingly
preferred method of finding a partner. According to Murstein, factors
related to the rise of self-selection are urban living,
industrialization,
changes in religion, declining influence of parental control, and
later age
at marriage.[5]
The Role of the Mass Media
Changes in mate-selection are related to changes in society. One of the
most important changes to society in the last 200 years has been
industrialization. Several 19th century theorists anticipated
industrialization and predicted that this process would have a variety
of
effects on society. According to Comte, as specialized functions
grow, and
ineffective social organizations fail to provide adequate linkages between
people, the individual becomes isolated from others. Social groups begin
to play a lesser role, leading eventually to the notion of the "lonely
crowd," which is identified by feelings of isolation, loneliness, and
unhappiness.
Spencer suggested that specialization is a natural, evolutionary outgrowth
of industrial society and that "society undergoes continuous growth." As
society grows, its parts become dissimilar. [6] T nnies' theory of
social
bonds portrayed a pre-industrial society existing in a state of
"Gemeinschaft," of "reciprocal binding sentiment." This condition would be
replaced by an industrial society called "Gesellschaft," characterized
by "reciprocal binding contract." This later stage was described as
featuring impersonality, anonymity, social distance, distrust and
isolation.[7] The accompanying division of labor would also increase social
individuality.
Durkheim suggested that society would thrive on specialization, but
concurred with his peers that there would be social consequences.
Suggesting that the conditions of solidarity would vary, Durkheim proposed
that the division of labor that produces solidarity would increase
social
individuality. As a result, the individual in such a mass society
becomes
subject to psychological isolation, reduced effective interpersonal
communication, an increase in confusion and ambivalence--a state called
anomie.[8] Individuals become confused about how to interact with
the world
around them and close and intimate ties between people are reduced.
This
lessens influences from interpersonal communication and leaves the
individual more vulnerable to influences from other sources such as the
mass media.
A theory that incorporates the mass society concept is media dependency
theory.[9] This theory suggests that as a society becomes more
complex and
there are fewer traditional, interpersonal routes available to
individuals
for solving problems, they tend to turn to the mass media for that
information.[10] DeFleur defines dependency as "a relationship in which
the
satisfaction of needs or the attainment of goals by one party is
contingent
upon the resources of another party."[11]
Media dependency can be defined as "a relationship in which the capacity
of individuals to attain their goals is contingent upon the
information
resources of the media system."[12] The basic propositions of the
theory are
that people in all societies need information to make numerous
decisions
about political affairs, to obtain food, shelter and transportation
and to
find a mate. In traditional societies, people tend to pursue similar
ways
of life and are linked by word-of-mouth networks of extended families,
long-term neighbors and other channels from which they obtain the
information they need. In urban-industrial societies, dissimilar
populations are brought together, despite differences in ethnicity,
occupational specialization, and economic class. Because of this social
differentiation, there is a weakening of effective word-of-mouth
channels
based on deeply established social ties through which people can
obtain the
information they need in daily life. Therefore, people in these societies
become dependent upon mass communications for information needed to make
decisions.[13]
In a modern urban-industrial society, such as in the United States,
the media system is part of the social fabric. The key relationships
are based on dependency, which may be with the entire media system or
with a particular medium, such as television or newspapers. According
to Ball-Rokeach and DeFleur, as the quality of the media improve
technologically, the media assume more and more unique information
functions. These functions include the gathering, processing and
delivery of information.[14] Lasswell wrote in 1948 that the media
serve
three functions within American society: (1) surveillance of the
environment, (2) correlation of the parts of society responding to the
environment, and (3) transmission of the social heritage from one
generation to the next.[15] Wright added a fourth function to this
array, entertainment.[16] As changes in society have occurred along
with
industrialization, such as increases in social conflict and social
change, individuals rely on the mass media to reduce resultant
feelings of ambiguity. The media provide new methods of answering
questions associated with the problems of daily life. This has
occurred before in newspapers, when features such as advertising,
entertainment, gossip, political analysis, comics and advice columns
arose to usurp such functions previously fulfilled through interp
ersonal means.
Mate Finding in Modern Society
A successful life in a complex society requires that individuals rely upon
others to attain both personal and collective goals. Traditionally,
channels of communication have been based on interpersonal relationships
as
is found between parent and child, neighbor and neighbor, clergy and
parishioner, or teacher and student. The concept of opinion leadership
is
related to these interactions. Individuals tend to seek out others
whom
they feel are knowledgeable about particular topics. Lazarsfeld et
al.,
suggested that ordinary people identify with people who are (1)
knowledgeable, (2) trustworthy, (3) available, and (4) acceptable.[17] A
person interested in finding a mate might analyze where they could find
the
necessary information to meet someone. He or she may ask a neighbor; his
or her mother or father may invite someone to dinner; two people might
meet in church.
Up until recently, such informal methods have been sufficient. However,
several changes in society have led to the break-up of traditional
patterns: (1) families have become disrupted, (2) people have become
increasingly geographically mobile, (3) society has become increasingly
racially and ethnically diverse, and (4) society has become
increasingly
specialized in its occupational roles and social status. Therefore,
it has
become more difficult to breach barriers to interpersonal interaction.
According to Schudson, relationships with people who helped socialize
the
individual have become weakened.
The rules, norms, attitudes, and behaviors that to the child seemed
natural, seem foreign to the adult who has moved away. What was
internalized is now seen as external, arbitrary, even alien. The
individual is separated from the past. Therefore, they tend to
rely
more and more on the mass media to serve these needs and a
dependency
develops.[18]
Some methods for locating romantic partners, such as singles bars, have
become unacceptable to many. This is due, at least in part, to
rising
concerns over sexually transmitted diseases such as AIDS, limits on
free
time, and decreasing acceptance of social drinking. For many years
advertising for companionship carried a similar stigma--"a discrediting
attribute" that suggested desperate and even deviate behavior.[19].
Personal
ads have historically had a seedy image, mainly due to their
association
with the alternative press such as the Village Voice and the Berkeley
Barb.
According to the Chicago Tribune:
The increased volume [of personal ads] is in part a measure of the
increasing respectability of finding a date through ads or
services.
No longer reserved for seedy types looking for one ([or] two or
three)
kindred spirits for some kinky fun, everyone from church-going single
mothers to university professors are signing up.[20]
Even today some stigma remains. Several recent movies and television
dramas have stressed that finding companions through ads is dangerous.
For
example, in the film Sea of Love, Al Pacino portrays a police officer
investigating the murders of men who advertised in the personal
ads.[21] A
1993 made-for-television movie (Dying to Love You) describes the story
of a
woman who uses personal ads to lure wealthy male companions whom she would
murder for their money.[22]
THE RESEARCH PROBLEM
This study investigates the presence of media dependency in everyday life.
Media dependency theory predicts that as traditional systems of
mate-finding became inadequate in a mass society, the media will take on
that role as it becomes socially acceptable. Previous studies on
media
dependency theory have focused primarily on quasi-experimental
situations
in which dependence on the media was measured under circumstances of
natural disasters. For example, Hirshburg, et al.., found that the media
were the primary information source used by persons at the 1980 Mount
Saint
Helens volcano eruption and that individuals continued to rely on the
media to reduce feelings of ambiguity associated with the
experience.[23]
Donlon and Roush studied the tendency for people to turn to the media
during the 1986 U.S. attack on Libya.[24] A dependency theory framework
was
used by Nigg to describe the seeking of earthquake forecasting
information
from the media. In their study of the mass media in earthquake
warnings,
Turner and Paz found low reliance on interpersonal channels consistent
with
media dependency theory.[25]
In the Great American Values Test, Ball-Rokeach, et al.., found that
television was implicated in all of the dependency types and that
watching
even a small amount of television could alter beliefs, related
attitudes
and behavior.[26] Grant, et al.. discovered that genre dependency
plays a
central role in television shopping behavior.[27] Becker and Whitney
demonstrated that individuals can become dependent on a particular medium
for information and that people who are dependent upon different media
tend
to have different views of the world.[28] Champaigne-Alman discovered that
foreign-born individuals who immigrate to the U.S. tend to rely on the
mass
media of the host culture, particularly television, and tend to use that
media before arrival.[29]
Other researchers have also drawn upon media dependency theory under
experimental conditions. Miller and Reese found that the more an
individual depends on a particular medium, the more likely it is that a
message contained within that medium will have its intended effect.[30]
Gaziano's study of dependency stressed that individuals are located in
specific social environments. The researcher found evidence that
people
depend on media other than television and that dependence might be
more a
factor of lifestyles and social roles.[31]
To date, little research has focused on the presence of media dependence
in everyday life. Previous studies have focused on media dependency
in the
context of natural disasters, under conditions of migration, or under
specific conditions such as concerns over politics or health. This
study
examines media dependency as a naturally occurring phenomenon under
the
conditions present in industrial society.
Adoption of Personals
Media dependency theory stresses the tripartite relationship of media,
audience and society. Media dependency is bi-directional. Just as
individuals become increasingly reliant on the media, the media also rely
on society. The media, therefore, have to adapt to perceived needs
and
interests of their audience.
Rogers' adoption of innovation model suggests that ideas, practices or
objects which are perceived as new are selected and used as the best
option
available.[32] The adoption of innovations in modern society suggests
choices which help to solve the problems of daily life for individuals and
organizations. Previous studies have shown that the adoption of an
innovation follows an S-shaped cumulative curve. The reason for the
normal
S-shaped curve is based upon the role of information and uncertainty
reduction. Adopter categories can be set forth as ideal types on an
innovativeness continuum. The types are innovators, early adopters, early
majority, late majority and laggards. In all of these categories,
opinion
leadership plays an important role.
Although discussion of the adoption of innovations tends to focus
primarily on the individual, organizations also adopt. Examples include
computerization of government offices, computerized photographic feeds
of
newspapers, and technology in schools.
As well as being a sign of changing lifestyles, personal advertisements
that use voice mail also represent the adoption of a technological
innovation for the newspaper industry. These ads are a new function for
the daily press, evolving out of people's basic information needs. As
individuals in a mass society come to rely on the media for the
information
they need, the media will respond by redefining themselves through the
adoption of new communications technologies. The adoption of personal
advertisements to the repertoire of products featured in the evolving
daily
press, newspapers have had to face questions about the proper role of the
newspaper in a changing society. Just as the conditions of industrial
society suggest that individuals will turn to the mass media for
information, adoption of innovation provides an explanation of how this
takes place in the newspaper industry.
Few studies have investigated personal advertisements from a mass
communications or theory-oriented perspective. Previous research has come
primarily from the disciplines of family studies, sociology, and, to a
lesser extent, marketing. Studies have focused on physical appearance
of
advertisers and partners,[33] age,[34] deviance,[35] psychological
balancing,[36] gender
differences,[37] stereotyping,[38] a marketing perspective,[39] and
the bargaining
processes involved.[40]
This study is not a formal test of either dependency or adoption theory.
Rather, these theories serve as general frameworks suggesting that: (1)
the use of personal advertisements will spread because of the
dependency
function, and (2) newspapers' adoption of personal advertisements will
follow an s-shaped curve similar to the diffusion of many other
innovations.
Two research questions were posited with respect to each theoretical
perspective: (1) To what extent have newspapers actually begun to
provide
personal advertisements? and (2) What pattern did the adoptions follow
over
time? Additional information was sought about the reasons newspapers have
added the ads, methods of responding to the ads, and the physical
characteristics of this section of the newspaper.
METHOD
A telephone survey was conducted to measure the extent of the adoption of
personal advertisements by daily newspapers. The sampling frame
consisted
of 268 newspapers with circulations of 50,000 or more as listed in
Editor &
Publisher Yearbook, 1991. A random sample of 67 newspapers was drawn
using the systematic skip interval method.
From November 1992 to May 1993, classified managers were interviewed at
each of the 67 newspapers. A 100 percent response rate was achieved.
The
newspaper managers were called during regular business hours,
typically in
mid-afternoon when pressure from deadlines was less likely to
interfere.
Occasionally, reaching the right person to interview was difficult.
At a
California paper, the interviewer was connected with seven different
people
before finally reaching the appropriate person. Approximately two to
three calls were necessary to complete each interview. Two newspapers
refused to answer the questions by phone but did reply via fax. These
representatives were asked questions, following a ten-item
questionnaire,
about whether or not the newspaper was running voice personals and if
so,
the year of adoption. Additional questions addressed any criteria
used in
accepting or rejecting ads, such as those from gays/lesbians or
"alternative lifestyle" ads. Other questions concerned the mechanics of
the ads, the days of the week the ads were run, how responses were
made to
the ads, what costs were involved and how responses were made. A
tearsheet
was requested from each paper to verify these replies.
FINDINGS
Nearly four out of five (55) of the newspapers were carrying personal
advertisements, as Table 1 shows. An additional 11 percent of the
dailies
said they had plans to add the personals within the next few months.
Five
newspapers were not carrying dating ads, nor did they indicate having
any
plans for doing so.
Table 1
NEWSPAPER ADOPTION OF THE PERSONALS
Frequency Percent
Carries 55 82.1
Plans to add 7 10.4
No plans to carry 5 7.5
67 100.0
Table 2 shows nearly two-thirds of the newspapers began running the ads
between 1991 and May of 1993.
Table 2
YEAR OF ADOPTION OF THE PERSONALS
Year Frequency Percent Cumulative Percent
1993 6 10.9 100
1992 21 38.1 89.1
1991 17 30.9 50.9
1990 6 10.9 20.0
1989 1 1.8 9.1
1988 1 1.8 7.3
1987 3 5.5 5.5
Total 55 100.0
Figure 1 shows that the cumulative diffusion curve follows a classic
S-shaped pattern.
Figure 1
CUMULATIVE ADOPTION
OF PERSONAL ADVERTISEMENTS BY NEWSPAPERS
1987 - 1993
Percent of
sample
Year
More than one third of personal ads sections (36 percent) occupied
one-half to one page of space. Another third of the papers filled 1 to 2
pages. Two newspapers (3 percent) had personal ads sections of three
pages
or larger while the remainder of the papers had sections of one-half a
page or less. Nearly two-thirds of the newspapers ran the personals in
a
full-sized section of the newspaper while a smaller percentage
presented
the personals in tabloid inserts.
More than a third of the dailies (36 percent) ran the ads on Fridays,
Saturdays and/or Sundays. Approximately 27 percent of the papers ran
the
ads on some combination of weekdays and about a quarter of the papers
ran
the ads seven days per week. A few papers had other arrangements.
Newspapers also varied in the types of advertisements they would accept.
As Table 3 reveals, more than half (59.7 percent) would not accept
gay
ads. Most (80.6 percent) would not accept "alternative lifestyle" ads,
such as those seeking multiple partners or more exotic variations.
More than two-thirds of the newspapers applied their own criteria to
screening the language of the ads while 22 percent relied on a voice mail
service to perform this task.
Table 3
ACCEPTANCE POLICY
Frequency Percent
Accepts gay ads 27 40.3*
Does not accept gay ads 40 59.7
Accepts alternative lifestyle ads 13 19.4
Does not accept alternative lifestyle 54 80.6
* Newspapers may have a combination of these policies, totals therefore do not
equal
100%.
Voice mail was found to be the most common method of responding to
personals (79 percent). Only nine papers offered the more traditional way
of responding, which is by letter only (13.4 percent). Frequently,
the
daily newspaper was not the only local publication carrying the
personals.
Two-thirds of the papers surveyed had competition from another local paper
for personal advertisers (66 percent).
Although most of the newspapers surveyed would not reveal detailed
financial information, almost half of the papers indicated that the ads had
been a financial success. According to one manager, the paper receives
approximately 300 ads per month and that the average time spent
responding
is 3 minutes at a cost of $1.95 per minute. Even if the advertiser's
ad is
free, each ad generates approximately $108. This would result in revenues
of over $30,000 per month or roughly $400,000 per year. Another paper
indicated that their take was over $500,000 during the same period.
The
amount of revenue generated is likely to vary with market size,
promotional
efforts, and amount of repeat business.
Many papers have invested in their own voice mail hardware. Others rely
on vendors. The financial success of the personals has been a selling
point for the many voice mail vendors involved in the personal ads
business. Although this study did not specifically investigate the
involvement of vendors, many representatives mentioned that the work load
(and the revenue) are shared with a vendor. Often, these companies
manage
the advertising placement, response retrieval, and reply process.
Most
vendors represent more than one newspaper. Compensation arrangements
vary.
For example, one newspaper representative indicated her paper takes 90
percent of the revenue generated from the ads and the vendor retains
10
percent.
DISCUSSION AND IMPLICATIONS
The findings suggest that the increasing trend of personal ad use by both
newspapers and individuals is a result of changing social and cultural
conditions in modern society. As traditional ways in which people can
find
and locate others who can fulfill their social and sexual needs decline,
the media--and especially the classified section of the daily
newspaper--take on this important function. According to Adelman and
Aaron, the aim of personal advertising is to expand the number of
eligible
others, whether in print, by computer, or through dating services. As
a
result, individuals frequently use the mass media to position the
single's
search as a consumer activity.[41]
Daily newspapers' adoption of these ads begins with, but goes beyond, the
need to raise revenue. At an increasing rate, daily newspapers are
carrying these "self"-advertisements in the classified section of the paper
as a response to the perceived needs of their subscribers at a time when
targeting sections of the paper to appeal to the interests of an
increasingly fragmented audience is mandatory for financial survival.
Among the newspapers surveyed, three primary reasons were given for adding
personal ads: (1) revenue, (2) readership, and (3) service. Voice
personal advertisements also represent newspaper industry experiments with
innovations. Also, the public's information needs are changing.
Newspapers face stiff competition from television, particularly for the
attention of young people. Many of the newspapers surveyed have
adopted
the personals to attract this younger audience. This has not been the
case--the most frequent users of personal ads are women over the age of
35.
Yet the inclusion of personals in the daily paper has appealed to a wider
group of users--those who simply enjoy reading the ads for entertainment.
These folks aren't necessarily seeking a dating partner but enjoy reading
this part of the paper as "breakfast table voyeurs."
This study demonstrates that daily newspapers have adopted the personals
widely, recently and rapidly. Among the dailies studied, 82 percent
were
carrying the ads and most had adopted them within the last three
years.
The adoption followed the s-shaped diffusion curve, as predicted by
Rogers.[42]
Not all of the dailies surveyed (8 percent) were carrying the personals.
Representatives of these newspapers provided several reasons for this
decision. One individual indicated that since the newspaper had
undergone
a recent ownership change, the new owners had discontinued them,
thinking
the personals were not "in good taste". He further stated that the
paper's
image "is that of a small family newspaper and the newspaper owners felt
the information in those ads did not mesh with their image."
Another
paper worried about "protecting the reader" from "this kind of thing".
One
individual felt that meeting others is a "private matter," inappropriate
for the press. This same individual did point out that her paper is
starting to recognize that "lifestyles have changed and it (personal ads)
is a valuable service, but we are responsible first to our readers,
then to
our advertisers."
This study explored the adoption of personal advertisements by daily
newspapers. The use of personal advertisements by individuals for dating
is predicted by media dependency theory. As society continues to
become
more complex, and individuals become more isolated, methods of finding
partners will further become the responsibility of the individual and
off
less concern to the family. Therefore, as traditional mechanisms for
partner selection continue to drift away, men and women will turn to the
mass media to seek eligible others. Faced with real financial
threats, the
daily press will respond in kind by providing this service to readers as
well as creating a new revenue base for itself. The pattern of
adoption of
the ads by daily newspapers can be predicted by the adoption of innovation
model.
As societies become more urbanized, modernized, and industrialized ( i.e.,
more complex), the individual is less able to rely on sources of
information for assistance in answering important questions and making life
decisions. With many roots to the past essentially severed, people become
more dependent on those around them. If these other people are unfamiliar
or unapproachable, the individual is more likely to identify with that
which is familiar: the media. Together this information provides
evidence
for proposing a fifth function of the media--a dependency function of
interpersonal intermediary. In this role the media act as agents
between
individuals in the absence of traditional informal sources of
information.
Severin and Tankard suggest that the media dependency model may provide a
synthesizing framework within which other theories can be understood,
including cultivation and agenda-setting.[43] Research has also
indicated
that dependency on the media may depend upon that individual's
location in
the social system. Future studies could explore this possibility.
Research could also explore the changing role of the daily press, the
organizational adoption of innovation process, the legal implications of
advertising acceptance criteria and the gay community, how the media
respond to social change, and the relationship of the media to the
audience. In addition, survey research could be conducted with those that
place personal ads. This study suggests that personal advertisements
are a
rich source of information about people and what they are looking for in a
partner as well as offering a source of documentation of social change.
[1] NOTES AND REFERENCES
Unni Wikan, Behind the Veil in Arabia (Ch
icago: The University of Chicago Press,
1982).
[2] Joh
n F. Peters, "Yanomama Mate Selection and Marriage," Journal of Comparativ
e
Family Studies 18 (Spring 1987), 79-98.
[3] Ronald P
. Dore, City Life in Japan (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1958), 167.
[4] Murray Sayle, "How to Marry a Mikado," The New Yorker, 10 May, 1993
, 43-52.
[5] Bernard I. Murstein, Love, Sex and Marriage Through the A
ges (New York: Springer,
1974), 412.
[6] Herbert Spen
cer, The Principles of Sociology (New York: D. Appleton, 1898); in
Melvin L. DeFleur and Sandra Ball-Rokeach, Theories of Mass Commun
ication, 5th ed., (New
York: Longman, 1989): 152.
[7]
Ferdinand T"nnies, Community and Society (Gemeinschaft und Gesellschaft);
trans. and
ed. Charles P. Loomis (East Lansing: Michigan State University
Press, 1957): 47. First
published in German in 1887; quote
d in DeFleur and Ball-Rokeach, 152-155.
[8] Emile Durkheim, The Divis
ion of Labor in Society; trans. George Simpson (New York:
F
ree Press of Glencoe, 1964); quoted in DeFleur and Ball-Rokeach, 157.
[9
] Sandra Ball-Rokeach and Melvin L. DeFleur, "A Dependency Model of Mass
Media
Effects," Communication Research 3 (1976): 3-21.
[
10] Ibid.
[11] Ball-Rokeach & DeFleur, 6.
[12] Ibid, 3-21.
[13] Melvin L. DeFleur and Everette Dennis, Understanding Mass Communica
tion, 5th ed.,
(Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1991), 18-19.
[14] Melvin L. DeFleur and Sandra Ball-Rokeach, Theories of Mass Communic
ation, 5th ed.,
(New York: Longman, 1988), 302-304.
[15] Harold Lass
well, "The Structure and Function of Communication in Society," quoted
in L. Bryson (ed.) The Communication of Ideas (New York: Inst
itute for Religious and
Social Studies, 1948).
[16] Ch
arles Wright, Mass Communication, 2d ed., (New York: Random House, 1959),
9.
[17] Paul Lazarsfeld, Bernard Berelson and Hazel Gaudet, The People
's Choice (New York:
Columbia University Press, 1948), quoted in Shearon
A. Lowery and Melvin L. DeFleur,
Milestones in Mass Commun
ication Research, 2nd ed., (New York: Longman, 1988), 79-103.
[18] Mi
chael Schudson, Advertising, The Uneasy Persuasion (New York: Basic Books
,
1984), 153.
[19] Erving Goffman, Stigma: Notes on th
e Management of Spoiled Identity (New York:
Simon & Schus
ter, Inc., 1963), 3.
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