The World Outside: Local TV News Treatment of Imported
News
Raymond L. Carroll and Charles A. Tuggle
College of Communication
The University of Alabama
Please address correspondence to:
Raymond L. Carroll
Department of Telecommunication & Film
P.O. Box 870152
The University of Alabama
Tuscaloosa, AL 35487-0152
(205) 348-8661
RCarroll @ UA1VM.UA.EDU
The World Outside: Local TV News Treatment of Imported
News
Various examinations of local television news have observed differences in news
treatment
according to market size. With contradictions in their findings, however, the
pattern in local news
emphasis is inconclusive. In the interim, network and other syndicated
satellite news gathering
(SNG) services have proliferated. This study sought to more clearly determine
whether stations
located in larger or smaller markets differ in their treatment of news.
Moreover, the analysis
attempted to resolve whether disparities noted among small and large television
market news
programs extend to their treatment of news imported from outside the market, an
especially
important consideration given the diffusion of satellite delivery systems and
the variety of
competing syndicated sources of news.
Distinct differences in imported news were found between stations in different
market sizes.
Stations in the smallest markets most clearly upheld McManus s economic model,
wherein
inexpensive, passive discovery applied over the journalistic model of active
surveillance. Thus,
the greater the station s resources, as indicated by market size, the more
active the discovery, as
reflected in the size of the newshole, the proportion of locally originated
news, and the level of
agreement on the proportions of newshole devoted to locally generated and
imported news topics.
The World Outside: Local TV News Treatment of Imported News
During the fall of 1994, viewers in television markets across the country could
tune in local
newscasts for the latest information about the O.J. Simpson trial. Similarly,
local news viewers
were appraised of widespread flooding in the Houston, Texas area and received
updates on the
terrorist bombing of a bus in downtown Tel Aviv. These were among many
instances where, by
reporting news that occurred outside their coverage areas, stations appeared to
have assumed the
mantle of network television news traditional service a blurring of the
distinctions between
network and local news.
Lichty and Gomery have questioned the impact of outside sources for news,
concluding that
satellite feeds are really important only for the occasional, big, breaking
stories, especially
sensational crimes and disasters. Even so, they say, local late-night
newscasts are heavily
dependent on edited network news stories narrated by local anchors. Moreover,
to meet the
competition of syndicated news services delivered by satellite, the networks
increased their own
feeds of news material.
About 74% of the stations responding to a 1987 survey by Lacy, Atwater, and
Powers
subscribed to satellite news networks. Stations in the large markets were more
likely to have
access to satellite news gathering (SNG) than those in small markets. But this
study was
conducted when SNG was a relatively young technology. In the ensuing years,
many more
stations, particularly those located in smaller markets, acquired and
extensively use such
services.
Despite the proliferation of SNG services, Hess reported that news directors of
102 television
stations in markets ranging from among the largest to the smallest in the
country said they were
not interested in expanding national and international news coverage.
Regardless, Cleland and
Ostroff observe that having gone to the trouble and expense of acquiring SNG
resources, stations
are likely to use them, perhaps driving purely local news from their
broadcasts.
Even with the acknowledged growth in the number of SNG services and their
accessibility in all
markets, it remains unclear how stations handle them. Do viewers have a
different window on the
world based on the size of the market in which they happen to reside?
A study of nine Texas stations in three markets supported Davie and Lee s
hypothesis that
network or consortium SNG services solidify news values since a higher agreement
was found
among stations for national and world stories than for local and state stories.
They also found a
relation between market size and content diversity, with the smallest of the
markets having the
least diversity and the largest having the greatest percentage of news product
differentiation.
A similar difference between smaller and larger markets was found by Bernstein,
Lacy, Cassara,
and Lau, who determined that stations in larger markets devote a lower
percentage of newshole
to local news while giving more attention to national and world events.
Carroll also found
different emphases on news by stations in medium and small markets, which
devoted less time
than those in major markets to national and world news. Moreover, major markets
were found to
devote significantly more time to state and regional news than either medium or
small markets.
One of the reasons for these distinctions may have been the length of early
evening news
programs. Stations in the largest markets often broadcast an hour or more of
local news whereas
30-minute programs were the norm in medium and especially in small markets.
Thus, these
differences could be attributed to program length as much as to any other values
manifested by
stations in different sized markets.
Consequently, the question of what kind of news reports are being imported to
supplement local
news remains unresolved. An unanticipated advantage of the Florida News Network
satellite
consortium that was observed by Cleland and Ostroff was the availability of
stories for the lighter
feature block of local newscasts wherein affiliated stations are able to use
stories from other
stations to fill the slot. The early-evening local news emphasized local stories
since it was
followed by the network news, whereas there was much heavier reliance on SNG
stories for the
late-evening newscast in an attempt to offer a fresh identity for that
program.
Several studies have considered whether sensational and human interest stories
such as crime,
accidents, and violence crowd out public affairs coverage on local television
news. Adams
concluded that despite criticism to the contrary, local news did not devote an
inordinate amount
of time to sensational or human interest stories. Likewise, Wulfemeyer found
that the stations
in the market he analyzed devoted more time to significant issues of the day
than to anything else.
Moreover, he found that local early-evening newscasts were truly local, with
little time devoted to
stories that took place outside a 50-mile radius of the stations. Ryu, on the
other hand,
concluded that public affairs news does not always make the newscast due to
pressure on
decision-makers to attract the largest audiences possible. Moreover, a recent
replication of
Adams study found that news organizations devoted significantly more time to
sensational/human
interest stories in 1992 then they did in 1976. And Carroll found that major
market stations
devoted significantly greater time to news about crimes, fires, and accidents,
which supported his
hypothesis that larger market stations devote more attention to stories on
controversial issues of
unpleasant aspects of community life.
Whereas Harmon found little difference between small and large-market stations
and concluded
that small-market stations were no more likely than larger market station news
programs to fill
their newsholes with prepackaged non-deadline features, Carroll concluded that
the higher
average time devoted by small market news to prearranged content suggested that
news workers
were more inclined to allow outside entities to identify what was newsworthy.
Similarly,
McManus found support for his economic model of inexpensive, passive discovery
over the
journalistic model of active surveillance. Nevertheless, the greater the
station s resources, as
indicated by the size of the market, the more active the discovery.
With the contradictory findings of studies cited above, the pattern in local
news emphasis is
inconclusive. This study seeks to confirm whether previously-noted patterns in
the use of news
from outside the television market still exist. Thus, the disparate patterns in
news values by
stations in various sized markets noted in previous research prompts the
following research
questions:
RQ1: Are there differences in television markets emphasis of news from outside
the
market?
RQ2: Are there differences in emphasis of sensational and other kinds of
imported news?
RQ3: Is imported news, most of which is delivered to the stations via
satellite, driving out
strictly local news?
Therefore, this study sought to more clearly determine whether stations located
in larger or
smaller markets differ in their treatment of news. Moreover, the analysis
attempted to resolve
whether disparities noted earlier among small and large television market news
programs extend
to their treatment of news imported from outside the market, an especially
important
consideration given the diffusion of satellite delivery systems and the variety
of competing
syndicated sources of news.
Method
Late evening (10 or 11 p.m.) news broadcasts were analyzed because they receive
the highest
viewing of any local newscast and because the broadcast by each station occurred
during the same
post prime-time period, imposing uniform length and program schedule constraints
on all news
decision makers. Broadcasts typical of stations across the country, taking into
account diversity
in geographic area and market size, were analyzed.
The late-evening news programs were 35 minutes in length, unlike early evening
news, where
stations in the largest markets schedule local news programs that may begin as
early as 4:00 p.m.
and continue until 7:00 p.m. with only a half-hour break for network news. In
contrast, most
stations located in small market and many in larger markets typically present
two half-hour news
broadcasts, scheduled on either side of the network nightly news.
The sample included 117 newscasts on 65 stations in 25 television markets that
were affiliated
with the ABC, CBS, or NBC television networks. Of these, 41 broadcasts were on
24 stations in
8 major markets (Nielsen Designated Market Areas [DMAs] 1-15); 31 broadcasts
were on 6
stations in 6 large markets (DMAs 21-33); 34 broadcasts were by 18 stations in
6 medium sized
markets (Nielsen DMAs 51-88); and 11 broadcasts were on 7 stations located in
small markets
(Nielsen DMAs 111-194).
Broadcasts in each market were videotaped on successive evenings during a
two-week period
encompassing October 18-20 and October 25-27, 1994. The late-evening local
newscast of ABC
television network affiliates were recorded on Tuesday, the CBS affiliates
newscasts on
Wednesday, and the NBC affiliates newscasts on Thursday during the first week,
with CBS
affiliates recorded on the second Tuesday, followed by NBC affiliates on
Wednesday, and ABC
affiliates news programs on the second Thursday.
The unit of analysis was the news story. Coding was completed by two-member
teams that met
periodically throughout the process to settle questions about the coding
procedure and to resolve
conflicts in coding decisions. The results of each coding session were reviewed
by the senior
author, who referred ambiguities and omissions back to the appropriate coding
team for
resolution.
The geographic origin of the story was coded according to whether it originated
in the city of
license, the TV market, the state, within the U.S census region in which the
market was located,
was a national story originating anywhere in the U.S. outside the station s
census region, or was a
world story that originated outside the U.S.
The source of the story was coded to identify whether it was local, network,
satellite news
gathering (SNG) from outside the market, a video news release (VNR), syndicated
video material,
other outside market video reports, or a studio report on news from outside the
market that did
not include video tape presentation.
Story topics were coded by following the category system used by Stempel. For
purposes of
the present analysis, these categories were expanded to include philanthropy and
community
affairs, religion, and consumer self-help.
An intercoder reliability coefficient of .80 was based on comparisons of
decisions by each of the
three coding teams on two newscasts coded by other teams. Reliability checks
revealed that a
lack of familiarity with various municipalities increased errors in coding the
geographic origin of
stories. Consequently, coding accuracy was improved by using maps of the
television markets
and by assigning broadcasts to a coding team with at least one member who was
acquainted with
the geographic area that comprised the television market. The data were entered
in a computer
database and coding was subsequently reviewed to increase consistency and
accuracy. When
inconsistencies and omissions were identified, they were resolved by the
original coders. Upon
completion of coding it was decided that all video reports that originated
outside the market
would be included in a single category due to the coding teams difficulty in
identifying the
specific source of many such reports. Thus, reliability was increased beyond
that achieved by the
coding teams.
Results
There are clear differences in the emphasis that stations in medium and smaller
markets gave to
imported news. First, 45.8% of the newshole in small markets was imported,
compared with
40.8% in medium, 34.4% in large markets, and 33.0% of major market stations
newshole. As
illustrated in Table 1, there was a progressive decrease from the smallest to
the largest markets in
the proportion of newshole devoted to state and regional news. Whereas 14.4% of
small market
stations news dealt with state and regional news, major markets devoted but
8.6%. Furthermore,
both small and medium market stations devoted greater proportions of their
newsholes (32.6%
and 31.4% respectively) to national and world news compared with much lower
proportions of
news on stations in large (26.1%) and major markets (28.6%).
Table 1 About Here
Percentage of Newshole Devoted to News
About Geographic Areas
Yet another contrast between the smallest and the larger markets was the
difference in the
proportion of newshole that was locally originated. Stations in the smallest
markets devoted a
much greater proportion of the newshole to news about their city of license:
48.6% compared
with 33.7% in medium markets to 36.7% in major markets. But whereas the
proportions of
newshole pertaining to news about the market that came from outside the city of
license ranged
from 24.5 to 26.1% in the three largest market categories, small market station
newscasts devoted
a mere 4.5% of their newshole to news about the broader TV market surrounding
the city.
Other differences were found among market categories through one-way analysis of
variance
(see Table 2). Whereas no appreciable differences were found for news
originating in the city of
license, in the market, in the state, or in the region, there was significantly
greater emphasis on
national news by stations in the smaller markets, with significantly greater
emphasis in medium
than in large markets to national news. And stations in small markets gave
significantly greater
emphasis to national news than those in either large or major markets F(3, 526)
= 4.53, p = .004.
Similarly, small market stations devoted significantly greater attention to
world news than the
stations in large markets F(3, 235) = 2.20 p = .089.
Table 2 About Here
Geographic Origin of News
Another consideration was the difference in emphasis on stories that originated
locally or were
imported. Major market stations gave greatest emphasis to locally originated
news (see Table 3).
The only significant difference in locally originated news, however, was between
major and
medium markets, however.
More distinctive differences were found between the emphasis given to imported
news by
smaller and larger markets. Both small and medium market stations devoted
significantly more
time to imported news both video and tell stories taken from wire service
reports F(3, 995)
= 6.73, p = .0002 than large or major market stations.
Table 3 About Here
Sources of Stories
In considering whether imported news drives out local news, we compared the
proportions of
newshole devoted to imported news with that for locally originated news. Rank
order correlation
coefficients for proportions of newshole devoted to topics of local and imported
news reveal
some notable contrasts (see Table 4). Stations in the major markets had the
closest priorities for
imported and locally originated news ro = .69, p < .01. Large market stations
had a similarly
strong agreements ro = .68, p < .01. There was a somewhat weaker agreement
between priorities
placed on locally originated and imported newshole in medium markets ro = .61,
p < .01. In
contrast, the coefficient of agreement in priority of local and imported news in
the smallest
markets, albeit significant, was considerably weaker that those in the larger
markets ro = .50, p <
.05.
Table 4 About Here
Percentage of Newshole
for Local and Imported Stories
There were some notable differences in the topics that were emphasized in
imported and locally
originated news. Not surprisingly, there were higher proportions of imported
than locally
originated news devoted to war and defense and to diplomacy and foreign
relations news in all
market categories.
In medium and small markets, the proportion of accident and disaster news from
outside the
market far surpassed the proportions of such news that was generated locally.
And unlike the
larger markets, a much greater proportion of crime news was imported into small
markets than
was originated locally. Conversely, small markets stations devoted an
considerably greater
proportion of their local news to education and the arts than stations in larger
markets and none
was imported by any of the stations.
There was no appreciable difference in the proportion of imported and locally
originated major
market newshole devoted to human interest news. In contrast, a higher
proportion of human
interest news broadcast in large markets originated outside their markets,
whereas medium and
small market stations originated a greater proportion of the human interest news
they broadcast.
Major, large, and medium markets devoted a greater proportion of their newsholes
to
sensational and human interest news, including stories that dealt with crime,
accidents and
disasters, war and defense, human interest, and popular amusements. Total
newshole devoted to
sensational news in the major markets was 57.1%, in large markets, and 55.8% of
medium market
newshole, compared with 47.9% of small market newsholes. Moreover, greater
proportions of
sensational news originated in the market. Such locally originated news
accounted for 36.1% of
major market newshole compared with 21% that was imported. Similar proportions
of the large
market newshole was found, with 22.9% imported and 32.8% originated by the
stations. In
medium markets, a somewhat greater proportion, 24.8%, was imported, while
locally generated
sensational and human interest news accounted for 31% of the newshole. In
contrast, whereas
27.4% of the small market station newshole was imported, only 20.5% was
locally-generated.
We now turn to the question of whether stations in a market category devoted
more or less time
to topics of imported news. As already noted, both small and medium market
stations devoted
significantly more total time to imported news than stations in large or major
markets F(3, 995) =
6.73, p = .0002.
Table 5 About Here
Topics of Imported Stories
There was a clear division between the two smallest and the two largest market
categories in
how they handled topics of imported stories. As shown in Table 5, small and
medium market
stations gave significantly greater emphasis to health and medical news F(3, 80)
= 4.97, p = .0033
and human interest news F(3, 234) = 4.20, p = .0064. Moreover, small market
stations also gave
significantly more emphasis to war and defense news F(3, 51) = 1.88, p = .144
than stations in the
larger markets.
Discussion
Contrasts in emphasis of imported news confirm that viewers have a different
window on the
world depending on the status of the market in which they reside. The smaller
the market, the
greater the proportion of newshole devoted to imported news. Whereas only 53.1%
of small
market newshole was accounted for by local news, 58.2% of medium, 64.3% of
large, and 62.8%
of major market news was about the market. Moreover, the predominance of the
news originated
by stations in the smallest markets was from their city of license, with only
4.5% of their newshole
accounted for by local news that came from outside that municipality. The
typical small market
station is located in a modest size city that accounts for the greatest
concentration of the
population in the market. That these stations do far less reporting on local
news occurring
outside their city of license does not suggest that little is happening outside
the city limits, but that
limited resources and less competition for viewers keeps reporters close to
home.
An important difference in the emphasis on news by stations in different market
categories is
demonstrated by their newsholes. Even though the length of the newscast was the
same (35
minutes), newshole varied according to market size. Whereas major market
stations averaged
14.13 minutes and large markets averaged 13.99 minutes, the newshole for medium
market
stations was 12.94 minutes, and it was only 11.83 minutes in the smallest
markets. So not only
did small market stations devote less time to news than stations in larger
markets, they imported a
considerably greater proportion of it, thus providing their viewers with even
less local news.
Jacobs points out that For a small station with a meager budget, network
services can be a
godsend, providing the affiliate s management takes advantage of the windfall to
concentrate
money and personnel on local news coverage. However, many stations are using
the material
instead to produce broader newscasts . As we found, smaller market stations
may have been
broader, but they provided less local news as a result.
Our second research question asked whether there were differences in emphasis on
sensational
and other kinds of imported news. We found that the largest markets devoted
higher proportions
of their newshole to sensational and human interest news, similar to Carroll s
finding that major
market stations devoted greater time to such sensational news. At the same
time, we found that
small markets stations imported greater proportions of sensational news than
those in larger
markets. Moreover, they emphasized sensational news happening outside their
markets by
importing a greater proportion of sensational and human interest news than was
originated locally.
RQ3 asked whether imported news is driving out strictly local news. First, we
found that small
market stations appeared to be less particular in what they used than larger
market stations since
the average length of outside video reports broadcast on stations in the major
markets was 34.6
seconds and 33.7 seconds in large markets, compared to 43.4 seconds on stations
in medium
markets and 45.6 seconds in the smallest markets.
At this writing, virtually all network affiliated television stations receive
SNG material they can
use in their local newscasts and we found that medium and small market stations
imported
significantly more news than stations in large and major markets. Furthermore,
rank order
correlation coefficients indicate that the proportions of time devoted to topics
of imported news in
large markets was more in line with the proportion of time they devoted to
locally originated
news. There was much lower agreement in small markets between the proportion of
newshole
given to imported and locally originated topics. Thus, in smaller markets, less
discriminating
stations were supplanting local news with imported news. One could criticize
larger market
stations for devoting too much time to inappropriate topics, perhaps. But
unlike in smaller
markets, locally originated news on those topics was supplemented, not
overshadowed by,
imported news.
Cleland and Ostroff concluded that stations affiliated with the Florida news
consortium may
have felt that stories filed by their own reporters would conform to their
philosophy and style of
news gathering whereas the various stations contributing stories from the
consortium would
differ. So our finding of significantly lower use of imported news by the
largest market stations
appears to be a reflection of the greater degree of selectivity exercised in
those markets. It may
also reflect the more competitive nature of the larger markets, wherein the
image of the station as
an identity for viewers is more carefully controlled than it may be in less
competitive smaller
markets.
At least during their late evening newscasts, the label, local news, is
somewhat of a misnomer
and stations in all markets counted on imported news to flesh out their news
programs. The
smaller the market, the greater the proclivity of stations to repackage news
from other sources,
relying heavily on video versions of the newspaper wire services. This was
especially so in the
smaller markets.
McManus s economic model is upheld here, wherein inexpensive, passive discovery
held true
over the journalistic model of active surveillance in smaller markets. The
greater the station s
resources, as indicated by market size, the more active the discovery, as
reflected in the size of the
newshole, the proportion of locally originated news, and the level of agreement
on the
proportions of newshole devoted to locally generated and imported news topics.
Table 1
Percentage of Newshole Devoted to News About Geographic Areas
Television Market
Major
Large
Medium
Small
All Markets
City of License
36.7%
35.6%
33.7%
48.6%
36.6%
TV Market
26.1
28.7
24.5
4.5
24.6
State and Region
8.6
9.6
10.4
14.4
9.8
National and World
28.6
26.1
31.4
32.6
29.0
Total
100.0%
100.0%
100.0%
100.0%
100.0%
Minutes
578.3
433.5
438.9
129.0
1579.7
Table 2
Geographic Origin of News
Television Market
Major
Large
Medium
Small
All Markets
City of License
72.28
61.38
62.22
72.33
66.31
TV Market
62.03
66.08
62.96
43.25
63.51
State News
41.26
42.47
34.11
34.60
38.38
Regional News
37.38
34.42
58.13
25.33
41.44
National
37.43a
32.18Bb
41.42b
54.41aB
37.95
World
30.19
25.39b
35.11
42.82b
31.12
Total
50.89
46.97
50.20
53.86
49.79
Note: Common superscripts indicate a significant difference based on one-way
analysis of variance in
each category. Lowercase superscripts indicate differences at p < .05.
Uppercase superscripts indicate
differences at p < .01.
Table 3
Source of Stories
Television Market
Major
Large
Medium
Small
All Markets
Locally Originated
71.97a
64.78
61.60a
67.69
66.63
Imported Video Stories
34.64A
33.67B
43.42AB
45.63aB
37.63
Imported: No Video
18.88A
18.24Bb
22.39b
27.64AB
20.30
Imported (All Stories)
32.99A
31.00B
39.98AB
43.22AB
34.96
Total
50.89
46.97
50.20
53.86
49.79
Note: Common superscripts indicate a significant difference based on one-way
analysis of variance in
each category. Lowercase superscripts indicate differences at p < .05.
Uppercase superscripts indicate
differences at p < .01.
Table 4
Percentage of Newshole for Local and Imported Stories
Top 15
Large
Medium
Small
All Markets
Imported
Local
Imported
Local
Imported
Local
Imported
Local
Imported
Local
Crime, Courts
7.5
20.5
9.0
20.7
10.9
15.7
8.4
8.0
8.9
18.2
Accidents, Disasters
5.6
7.1
4.9
4.7
4.9
3.5
6.2
0.6
5.3
4.9
Politics, Gov t
3.6
13.1
2.9
13.9
4.2
9.8
3.3
8.5
3.6
12.0
War, Defense
1.7
0.3
1.3
0.9
1.6
0.1
5.3
0.7
1.9
0.4
Human Interest
5.8
5.9
7.4
5.2
6.8
9.3
6.4
8.3
6.6
6.8
Pop Amusements
0.4
2.3
0.3
1.3
0.6
2.4
1.1
2.9
0.5
2.1
Diplomacy, For Rel
4.0
0.7
2.8
0.2
3.5
0.3
4.9
0.9
3.6
0.4
Economy
0.3
3.3
0.3
2.1
1.9
4.8
1.6
3.9
0.9
3.5
Transportation
0.1
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.1
1.4
0.7
0.2
0.7
Pub. Moral Problems
1.3
5.1
1.3
9.5
0.8
7.1
0.6
7.7
1.1
7.1
Science, Invention
0.1
0.4
0.2
0.5
0.7
0.4
0.3
0.3
Health , Welfare
2.3
4.4
3.4
3.4
4.5
1.8
5.0
3.6
3.4
3.3
Philantrophy
0.1
0.6
0.1
0.2
0.4
0.9
0.3
0.1
0.5
Consumer Self Help
0.2
0.5
1.5
0.1
1.9
1.4
0.2
0.7
Education/The Arts
1.6
1.1
1.9
7.1
2.0
Religion
0.7
0.1
0.3
Total
33.0
67.0
34.4
65.6
40.8
59.2
45.8
54.2
36.6
63.4
Grand Total
100.0%
100.0%
100.0%
100.0%
100.0%
Minutes
578.3
433.5
438.9
129.0
1579.7
Rank Order
Correlations
.69 (p < .01)
.68 (p < .01)
.61 (p < .01)
.50 (p < .05)
.64 (p < .01)
Note. Locally originated news includes some news about the state, region or the
nation that was originated by the station.
Table 5
Topics of Imported Stories
Television Market
Major
Large
Medium
Small
All Markets
Crime & Courts
38.85
37.49
43.33
40.44
39.96
Human Interest
22.83Aa
23.67b
30.88Ab
35.14ab
25.74
Politics & Government
54.46
42.39
50.18
36.43
48.30
Accidents & Disasters
29.06
29.63
34.21
40.08
31.26
Public Moral Problems
41.91
33.40
24.17
25.00
36.21
War & Defense
30.30
21.75b
37.83
51.13b
32.35
Diplomacy/Foreign Rel
42.46
43.47
48.00
37.80
43.42
Economic Activity
18.67
18.00
34.86
30.50
28.00
Transportation
25.00a
23.75B
24.00c
55.00aBc
28.43
Science & Invention
18.00
25.00
92.50
35.00
48.00
Health & Medical
29.52Aa
34.12aB
45.96ac
77.00ABc
38.86
Popular Amusements
21.43Aa
29.00B
33.80aC
85.00ABC
30.69
Philanthropy
20.00
14.00
105.00
46.33
Consumer Self-Help
41.50
150.00
77.67
Total
32.49A
31.00B
39.98AB
43.22AB
34.96
Note: Common superscripts indicate a significant difference based on one-way
analysis of variance in
each category. Lowercase superscripts indicate differences at p < .05.
Uppercase superscripts indicate
differences at p < .01.
End Notes
See Raymond L. Carroll, Blurring Distinctions: Network and Local News, in The
Future of
News: Television, Newspapers, Wire Services, Newsmagazines, ed. Phillip S. Cook,
Douglas
Gomery, and Lawrence W. Lichty. (Washington, D.C.: Woodrow Wilson Center Press,
1992),
45-51.
Lawrence W. Lichty and Douglas Gomery, More is Less, in The Future of News,
11-16.
Stephen Lacy, Tony Atwater, and Angela Powers, Use of Satellite Technology in
Local
Television News, Journalism Quarterly 65 (Winter 1988): 925-929, 966.
See, for instance, Rob Puglisi, Satellite News Feeds: Many New Sources, RTNDA
Communicator, November 1988, 10-17; Rob Puglisi, Feeding the News Machine,
RTNDA
Communicator, May, 1991, 10-11; and .Jerry Jacobs, Changing Channels: Issues and
Realities
in Television News. (Mountain View, CA: Mayfield Publishing Co., 1990).
Stephen Hess, Let s Go to the Tapes! RTNDA Communicator, April 1991, 37-38.
Gladys L. Cleland and David H. Ostroff, Satellite news Gathering and News
Department
Operations, Journalism Quarterly 65 (Winter 1988): 946-951.
William R. Davie and Jung-Sook Lee, Television News Technology: Do More
Sources Mean
Less Diversity? Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media, 37 (Fall 1993):
453-464.
James M. Bernstein, Stephen Lacy, Catherine Cassara, and Tuen-yu Lau,
Geographic
Coverage by Local Television News, Journalism Quarterly 67 (Winter 1990):
663-671.
Raymond L. Carroll, Market Size and TV News Values, Journalism Quarterly 66
(Spring
1989): 49-56.
Cleland and Ostroff, Satellite news Gathering.
William C. Adams, Local Public Affairs Content of TV News, Journalism
Quarterly 55
(Winter 1978): 690-695.
K. Tim Wulfemeyer, A Content Analysis of Local Television Newscasts: Answering
the
Critics, Journal of Broadcasting 26 (Winter 1982): 481-486.
Jung S. Ryu, Public Affairs and Sensationalism in Local TV News Programs,
Journalism
Quarterly 59 (Spring 1982): 74-78, 137.
Karen L. Slattery and Ernest A. Hakanen, Sensationalism Versus Public Affairs
Content of
Local TV News: Pennsylvania Revisited, Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic
Media 38
(Spring 1994): 205-216.
Carroll, Market Size and TV News Values.
Mark D. Harmon, Market Size and Local Television News Judgment, Journal of
Media
Economics 2 (Spring 1989): 15-29.
Carroll, Market Size and TV News Values.
John McManus, How Local Television Learns What Is News, Journalism Quarterly
67
(Winter 1990): 672-683.
Markets included New York, Los Angeles, Boston, Washington DC, Dallas, Atlanta,
Cleveland, Tampa-St. Petersburg, Denver, Orlando, Hartford-Springfield,
Indianapolis, Raleigh-
Durham, Nashville, Birmingham, Albany, Mobile-Pensacola, Rochester, NY, Tuscon,
Davenport,
IA-Rock Island-Moline, IL, Montgomery, AL, Gainesville, FL, Panama City, FL,
Tuscaloosa,
AL, and Lafayette, IN.
United States Department of Commerce, 1990 Census of Population and Housing
Guide.
(Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1990).
Guido H. Stempel III, Topic and Story Choice of Five Network Newscasts,
Journalism
Quarterly 65 (Fall 1988): 750-752.
Ole R. Holsti, Content Analysis for the Social Sciences and Humanities.
(Reading, Mass.:
Addison-Wesley, 1969), 137-140.
Jacobs, Changing Channels, 11.
Carroll, Market Size and TV News Values.
Cleland and Ostroff, Satellite News Gathering, 950
McManus, How Local Television Learns What Is News.
World Outside 20
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