ABSTRACT ABSTRACT
THE HEALTH OF PHOTOJOURNALISM AND VISUAL COMMUNICATION
EDUCATION IN THE NINETIES:
CAUSE FOR CONCERN OR A BRIGHT FUTURE?
by
C. Zoe Smith, Ph.D.
and
Andrew Mendelson, Ph.D. Student
School of Journalism
University of Missouri-Columbia
Columbia, MO 65211
(314)-882-3732
A six-page survey, mailed to the 405 program administrators, resulted in
204 completed surveys (50.4 percent). Respondents were asked about
changes
to either photography or visual communication offerings in the last five
years, program plans for the next five years, and reason(s) for these
changes.
Based on the results of the descriptive analysis and the regression
analysis, there does not appear to be a strong trend toward reducing
courses or programs in photography or visual communication.
A paper presented to the Visual Communication Division of
the Association for Education in Mass Communication
at the annual convention, Washington, D.C.
August 1995.
THE HEALTH OF PHOTOJOURNALISM AND VISUAL COMMUNICATION
EDUCATION IN THE NINETIES:
CAUSE FOR CONCERN OR A BRIGHT FUTURE?
by
C. Zoe Smith, Ph.D.
and
Andrew Mendelson, Ph.D. Student
School of Journalism
University of Missouri-Columbia
Columbia, MO 65211
(314)-882-3732
A paper presented to the Visual Communication Division of
the Association for Education in Mass Communication
at the annual convention, Washington, D.C.
August 1995.
Budget cuts. Proposed mergers. Mergers. Threatened layoffs. Closures.
While this may describe what goes on in big business, it also describes the
rocky couple of years journalism and mass communication education has
experienced lately. Each semester seems to bring more news about programs
under "review," which often means they are being looked at for possible
merger with another unit or possible elimination.
As Judy VanSlyke Turk, current president of the Association for Education in
Journalism and Mass Communication, says, "I wish 'they' would quit
picking
on us. 'They'--college and university governing boards and trustees,
presidents, provosts and even some deans--are saying with increasing and
alarming frequency that journalism and mass communication education isn't
central enough to a university's mission.[1]
While mergers may not be so new, this most recent trend of upheaval seems to
have started with the closing of the journalism unit at Oregon State
University when the 1990-91 academic year was over. Within the next four
years, many programs, including those at Arizona, Michigan, Washington,
Ohio
State, Southern California, San Diego State, and Western Ontario, were
under
review and making headlines.
The results of Gerald M. Kosicki and Lee B. Becker's annual enrollment
survey in Journalism Educator indicate that nearly 19 percent of the 430
programs in the sample reported that discussion of mergers on their campuses
had occurred recently, while approximately 4 percent reported discussion
of
elimination of their units.[2] Nearly 8 percent of the administrators
already
were leading units that resulted from a merger within the last five
years.[3]
Recent Sites of Controversy
As of March 1995, the battle over the proposed closing of the University of
Arizona's Department of Journalism continues. Under the upper
administration's plan, the unit would close by June 30, 1998, leaving
journalism in the state to be taught only at Arizona State and Northern
Arizona universities. However, the UA faculty have countered by proposing a
new School of Journalism and Media Studies.[4]
A report in a 1995 issue of the Chronicle of Higher Education indicates that
over the next few years the communication department at the University of
Michigan will be reorganized, and that as of Fall 1995, the department's
video and film courses will become part of another department.[5] "The
department's journalism program--deemed too vocational for a liberal-arts
curriculum--will be moved out of the college," according to the report.[6]
Near the end of 1994, the president of the University of Washington targeted
the School of Communications for complete elimination to help cover more
than
$18 million in proposed budget cuts.[7] Recently, a faculty-student
committee
voted to save the school; however, several more hurdles must be overcome
before the program's future is known.[8]
Earlier in 1994, Ohio State University announced plans to merge the
journalism program with the communication school, following three years
of
budget cuts to both units. One of the main reasons given for merging
journalism into the school was related to redefining the mission of the
university and questioning the journalism unit's centrality to a liberal arts
education.
At the University of Southern California, the School of Journalism merged in
July 1994 with the Department of Communication Arts and Sciences and the
Annenberg School of Communication. "The expanded Annenberg School will
become a part of a larger Annenberg Center for Communication, which will
include the School of Cinema-Television and the School of Engineering,"
according to a 1994 article in The Quill.[9]
The journalism department at San Diego State University also merged in 1994
with speech communication and telecommunication & film, two previously
independent units, resulting in the School of Communication. According to a
recently retired journalism professor, "Mergers like this make you too
big
for the president of the university to pick you off when the next round of
budget cuts comes along. These decision are as much a function of hard
times
as they are bad thinking."[10]
The problems facing journalism and mass communication programs are not
limited to the United States. The Graduate School of Journalism at the
University of Western Ontario barely survived elimination because of budget
problems. In October 1993 the board of governors reversed by a one-vote
margin a vote of the campus' senate to close the unit.
Other Changes Affecting Photojournalism Programs
In addition to the shakeup in some journalism and mass communication
programs, there have been important changes within several photojournalism
programs at institutions other than those already discussed. For example,
with the retirement of Charlie Brill in 1994, Kent State University
stopped
offering its major in photojournalism, while still offering the photo
courses. According to Michael Morse, a lack of commitment to the
photojournalism major is what contributed to the elimination of the
major.[11]
It should be noted, however, that in 1993 Kent State's journalism program
had
more than 900 undergraduates, but only 23 were photojournalism majors.
Another large program, the University of Wisconsin-Madison, also phased out
all of its photography courses, apparently because of a lack of student
interest and high costs of operating a chemical darkroom for so few students.
The University of South Carolina also closed its photography sequence during
the 1990s.
All the news about university-level photojournalism and visual communication
education is not bad, however. For example, the School of Visual
Communications at Ohio University in Athens received a $250,000 grant in
1994
from the Scripps Howard Foundation. That same year the University of
Georgia
hired Steve Dozier to teach courses and coordinate the photojournalism
program which Dr. Beverly Bethune fought very hard to maintain once she knew
she was retiring.[12] Later this year, the Photojournalism Sequence at
the
Missouri School of Journalism takes over the ground floor of a new
three-story building.
The Study
Are these specific changes in photojournalism programs and more generally in
journalism and mass communication programs around the country isolated
incidents or evidence of more bad news to come?
It addition to wondering about the overall health of photojournalism
programs around the country, it seemed appropriate to follow up on the 1989
survey Professor Robert Heller of the University of Tennessee conducted
which
appeared in Journalism Educator in Autumn 1991. Heller attempted to
assess
the current status of photojournalism education by surveying
administrators
at 179 member institutions of the Association of Schools of Journalism
and
Mass Communication (ASJMC). In his conclusions, Heller said,
"Photojournalism
education enters the Nineties full of contradictions, thriving in some
school
and neglected in others."[13] He was very concerned that since
photojournalism
continues to require more computer/digital equipment, there would be an
increasing gap between the "haves" and "have nots."
In addition to the descriptive statistics about the current "health" of
photojournalism programs, we also were interested in seeing how other areas
of visual communication, such as layout/design and graphics, were doing.
It
seemed possible that units could be expanding into areas of information
graphics and desktop publishing thanks to the ever increasing advances in
computers and software.
We wondered if there was any significant difference based on university size
or journalism/communication department size on predicting the closure or
expansion of classes or the offering of majors or minors in photojournalism
and visual communication.
Using Heller's questionnaire as a beginning point, we arrived at a six-page
survey, which was mailed to the dean, director or chair listed for all
405
journalism programs (colleges, schools, departments, and programs) in the
United States and Canada, according to the 1993-94 Association for
Education
in Journalism and Mass Communication Directory. A reminder postcard was
mailed several weeks later to any administrator who had not returned the
survey.
Results
In all, 204 surveys were returned for a 50.4 percent response rate. The
units described by the completed surveys covered a wide range of sizes and
represented all geographic regions. Also, 62 responses were for units
currently accredited by the Accrediting Council on Education in Journalism
and Mass Communication (ACEJMC), or a response rate of approximately 66
percent.
As is often the case, the survey was completed by a variety of
individuals--oftentimes by the dean, director or chair, but in other
instances the survey was passed down by the chief administrator to a
faculty
or staff member.
One of our primary areas of interest was whether there had been expansion or
closure of courses in photography and other areas of visual
communication,
especially in light of the growing dependence on expensive computer
hardware
and software. Respondent were asked to state whether there had been any
changes to either photography or visual communication offerings in the last
five years and if there are any plans to change these areas in the next
five
years. Then they were asked to state the reason(s) for these changes,
checking as many answers as applied.
Of the 186 responses to whether they had changed their photography program
in the last five years, 126 programs (67.7 percent) had made one or more
changes (see Figure 1). Of those schools, 49 programs (26.3 percent) added
new classes, 24 programs (12.9 percent) added new sections of existing
classes, 16 programs (8.6 percent) added new photo faculty, and seven
programs (3.8 percent) added a new sequence. Regarding expansion (see Figure
2), 64.2 percent of the respondents said the most common reason for this
was
more student interest, and 31.3 percent thought that new technology made
these courses more workable. Other reasons chosen were changing priorities
(26.9 percent), more qualified faculty (22.4 percent), more school
support
(13.4 percent), and more external funding (7.5 percent).
Not all the news was good, however. Of those 126 programs, 37 programs
(19.9 percent) closed classes, 14 programs (7.5 percent) decreased the
number
of photo faculty, and nine programs (4.8 percent) closed sequences. For
those programs that decreased photography offerings (see Figure 3), 39
percent cited lack of school financial support, 35.6 percent cited lack of
student interest and/or changing priorities, 18.6 percent cited lack of
qualified faculty, and 5.1 percent cited lack of external/private funding.
Sixty of the 186 respondents (32.3 percent) said no changes were made to
their photojournalism curriculum.
In looking ahead five years (see Figure 1), 65 programs (34.6 percent) do
not expect to make any changes in their photography offerings. Of those
123
respondents who expect to make changes, 48 programs (25.5 percent)
anticipate
adding new classes and 24 programs (13 percent) expect to add new
sections of
existing classes. For those 30 respondents who expect to close photo
programs (see Figure 3), 57 percent of the administrators said lack of school
financial support and 33 percent said lack of student interest were the
most
significant reasons for the changes.
On the other hand, greater student interest was a prime reason selected for
those 77 programs that plan to expand photography offerings (see Figure
2).
New technology (53 percent) and changing priorities (35 percent) were
cited
most often as reasons for growth.
Looking at other areas of visual communication in the last five years (see
Figure 5), 91 of the 178 respondents (51.1 percent) reported they added
new
classes, while 42 administrators (24 percent) said they experienced no
changes. As for expansion, more student interest (63.1 percent), new
technology (50.5 percent), changing priorities (44.7 percent), and more
qualified faculty (22.3 percent) were most often selected as reasons.
The trend for the next five years in visual communication (other than
photography) seems to be in the direction of expansion (see Figure 4). Of
the 166 respondents, 38.6 percent expect their programs to add new classes
and 20.5 percent expect to add more sections of existing classes. As far
as
expansion, 58.9 percent attribute more student interest, 56.7 percent
attribute new technology, and 46.7 percent say changing priorities explain
the expected growth in visual communication offerings.
For the nine schools (5.1 percent) that did reduce offerings in visual
communication (see Figure 6), 50 percent said lack of school financial
support, 36.4 percent cited changing priorities and 27.2 percent said lack of
student interest as the most frequent reasons for this. Most often cited
reasons for decreasing visual communication offerings were changing
priorities (52.9 percent) and lack of school financial support (41.2
percent). Also, 42 of the 178 respondents (23.6 percent) said there were
no
changes.
From these descriptive data, there does not seem to be the feared trend
toward closure in either photography or other areas of visual communication.
In looking at the zero-order correlations to see what the relationship
was
between changes in visual communication and/or photojournalism courses, we
found that only three of the correlations differed significantly from
zero.
First, what was done in the past in photography was positively related (r =
.4007; p = .05; df = 64) related to what was predicted to be done with
photojournalism in the future. Thus, if a photo program closed in the past,
the likely trend would be toward future closings.
Second, the same trend held for visual communication offerings past and
future (r = .4449; p = .05; df = 64). Last, there was a significant
positive
correlation between future predicted changes in photography and predicted
changes in the future for visual communication (r = .4619; p = .05; df =
64).
If these expected changes hold true, photojournalism and other areas of
visual communication should change in the same direction (expansion or
closure).
Three correlations that were not significant were between the direction that
photojournalism went on in the past five years and what is expected to
happen
to visual communication in the next five years (r = .133; p = .05; df =
64);
what went on in the past five years to visual communication and what is
expected to happen to photojournalism in the next five years (r = .2173; p =
.05; df = 64) and what went on in the past five years to both
photojournalism
and visual communication (r = .2233; p = .05; df = 64).
It also appears there was no relation between the closing of an area
(photojournalism) and the expansion of the other, nor was there a correlation
of both photojournalism and visual communication expanding or both
closing in
the past five years. In other words, there was no predictive value for
what
happened in the past as it related to what would happen in the future.
Hierarchical multiple regression analysis was then conducted using as the
dependent variable, a three point ordinal scale of change. According to
Cohen and Cohen, an ordinal dependent variable is appropriate for multiple
regression analysis.[14] Closure of any sort (classes or sequences) was
scored a
-1. Expansion of any sort was scored a +1, and no change was scored a
zero.
In the first analysis, university size and journalism department size
were
used as the independent variables.
In a second analysis, the independent variable was accreditation status. We
were interested in seeing if either of this factor predicted closure or
expansion of programs. University size was coded on a three point scale (1 =
0 to 10,000 students; 2 = 10,001 to 20,000; and 3 = 20,001+). The
average
university size of those that responded was 1.75. The entire range of
programs was represented in our collected sample. As for program size, this
was coded on a five point scale (1 = 0 to 100 students; 2 = 101 to 250; 3
=
251 to 500; 4 = 501 to 1,000; and 5 = 1001 +), with the average
department
size being a 2.73. Like university size, the entire range of program
sizes
was represented. The first regression analysis used the changes made to
photography programs in the last five years as the dependent variable.
There
was no significance for the overall F-test (F = .40; df = 3, 124; p-value
>
.50). Using changes expected to be made in the next five years as the
dependent variable, again the overall F-test was not significant (F = .71; df
= 3, 108; p-value > .50). Moving on to other areas of visual
communication,
with past changes as the dependent variable, the overall F-test was not
significant (F = .62; df = 3, 177; p-value > .50). Finally, with expected f
uture changes to visual communication as the dependent variable, again
the
overall F-test is not significant (F = .49; df = 3, 107; p-value > .50).
Since all these regressions resulted in non-significant F-tests, there is no
need to further examine either the interactions or the main effects.
This
overall F test also shows that the R^2 for any of these analyses is not
significantly different than zero. It seems that neither university size nor
journalism department size was a significant factor in explaining changes
in
either photography or visual communication programs.
We also examined how accreditation correlated with all the change variables.
It was thought that possibly accredited programs would have more dedication
to improving there programs. Whether a unit was accredited or not did
not
correlate (the r^2 was not significantly different from zero; = .05) at
all
with how the school had changed or planned to change photography or
visual
communication offerings (none of these r^2 even accounted for 1 percent of
the variance).
Moving on to more general descriptive statistics, at least one photography
course is offered at 91.2 percent of the schools polled in 1994 (see
Figure
7), while in the 1989 Heller survey, 83 percent of the schools offered at
least one photography course. Further, of the responding schools, 17.7
percent had a major in photography and 9.9 percent had a minor. This
compares to 25 percent for majors and 3 percent for minors in the 1989 Heller
survey. Of schools not offering a photography course in the journalism
program, 35.5 percent required students to take one in another department,
such as art.
In terms of other areas of visual communication (see Figure 8), at least one
course was offered at 94.8 percent of the respondents' units, with a
major
available at 17.8 percent and a minor at 6.8 percent of the programs.
The programs responding offer an average of 4.61 courses combined for
photography and visual communication (median = 4). The low was zero and the
high was 34 different classes. (These are courses listed in that
university's
bulletin, regardless of the last time the course was actually taught.)
Breaking this down further, most schools offer slightly fewer than two
courses (mean = 1.67) every term (semester or quarter) and a little more than
two other courses once per year (mean = 2.24).
Apart from photography majors or minors (see Figure 9), a photography course
was required for 43.5 percent of the schools for news/editorial majors
(Heller: 33 percent), 14 percent for advertising students (Heller: 13
percent), 15 percent for broadcast students (Heller: 11 percent) and 24.4
percent for public relations students (Heller: 19 percent). At the same
time, another type of visual communication course was required for
news/editorial majors at 49.5 percent of the programs responding, for
38.5
percent of advertising majors, for 14.6 percent of broadcast majors, and
for
46.4 percent of public relations majors.
Graduate courses in photography were offered in 34 percent (Heller: 21
percent) of the respondents' units. The average number of graduate courses
offered was 2.3. The most offered by any of the responding schools was
eight
courses.
Most departments have one full-time faculty member in photography (mean =
.89; median = 1). The typical full-time photography faculty member (see
Figure 10) has a master's degree (62.4 percent). Of the faculty teaching
photojournalism, 44 of 157 have a doctorate (28 percent). Heller found
similar results with 61 percent of full-time faculty having a masters degree
and 25 percent having a doctorate. In addition to the full-time faculty,
there was an average of one other faculty member in photography working
part-time (mean = .63). These part-time faculty members were evenly split
between having a bachelor (43.4 percent) or master degrees (44.6 percent).
There was an average of 1.5 full-time faculty members for other visual
communication courses; 55.5 percent of these teachers had master's degrees
and 38 percent had doctorates (see Figure 11). There was an average of
one
other part-time faculty member in visual communication (mean = .59).
Like
the photography part-timers, most of these visual communication teachers
had
either bachelors (38 percent) or master's degrees (47.9 percent).
Conclusions
From the results of the descriptive analysis and the regression analysis,
our study does not indicate there is a strong trend toward reducing
courses
or programs in photography or visual communication. The examples of the
upheaval in journalism and mass communication education cited at the
beginning of this paper appear to be well publicized, yet isolated
incidents,
of changes going on around the country.
Nevertheless, there is another bit of troubling research which should
concern those interested in the future of visual communication education.
According to Professor Douglas Birkhead of the University of Utah,
"Photojournalism emerged as the most frequently mentioned vulnerable
course,
cited by nearly one in five administrators (18.3 percent) as the most
likely
subject for elimination."[15] Birkhead came to that conclusion based on
148
responses from administrators to his questionnaire on curriculum decision
making which he sent in 1994 on behalf of the Education Committee of the
American Journalism Historians Association; respondents were asked to list
three courses in their undergraduate program vulnerable to elimination.
When administrators were asked to identify three broad curriculum areas
(beyond journalism's traditional newspaper core), and the three most
vulnerable course areas, "visual communication" came in third (21.6
percent),
according to Birkhead.[16]
Given the results of Birkhead's recent study, we wondered if the difference
in his results and ours could have been due to the fact that possibly
more
chief administrators completed his questionnaire than ours, which, in some
cases, had been passed down to other faculty or staff members. To examine
this possibility, we created a dichotomous variable for who filled out our
survey. The variable was coded a 1 if the survey was completed by the
chief
administrator and 0 if it was filled out by anyone else. Then this
variable
was correlated with each of the four "change" variables to see if there
was
any relationship.
None of these correlations were significant. This means there was no
relationship between who filled out the form and the direction the
photojournalism or visual communications programs had gone in the past or
were expected to go in the future (correlation with photojournalism past: r
=
.0908; t = 1.043; df = 131) and (with photojournalism future: r = -.0224;
t =
-.243; df = 118) and (with visual communication past: r = -.1332; t =
-1.556;
df = 134) and (with visual communication future: r = -.0217; t = -.231;
df =
113).
Birkhead's gloomy predictions for the future of photojournalism and visual
communication education are not consistent with the results of our study.
One possible explanation is that respondents may have not been able to
determine the "hidden agenda" of Birkhead's study (i.e., the continued health
of history courses when budget cuts force new priorities), whereas the
theme
of our questionnaire was very apparent. Knowing that we were concerned
with
the health of photography and visual communication offerings may have
softened the answers the respondents gave. Unfortunately, a clear
explanation of why these two recent surveys of administrators are not in
agreement is unknowable at this point. No doubt further research needs to
be
done.
Regardless of the lack of agreement on exactly what our future holds, it is
always in the best interest of photography and visual communication
faculty
to make sure their courses are an essential part of the overall
curriculum.
Given the growing importance of communicating visually, there is no
better
time to encourage others (students and faculty alike) to understand what
we
do. Reaching out to our colleagues and becoming part of the fabric of
our
programs no doubt will serve us well if and when the budget ax or merger
mania sweeps our campus.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Beasley, Maurine. "From the President," AEJMC News (January 1994): 2-3.
Beasley, Maurine. "From the President," AEJMC News (July 1994): 2-3.
Beasley, Maurine. "From the President," AEJMC News (November 1993): 2, 10.
Bebow, John. "U-M Will Remove Journalism Program From Its Curriculum,"
Detroit News (January 15, 1995).
Birkhead, Douglas. Letter to administrators who participated in survey on
curriculum decision making for American Journalism Historians Association,
January 18, 1995, 3 pages.
Birkhead, Douglas. "Survey: H-History Courses Likely to Survive Journalism
Budget Cuts," AJHA Intelligencer (February 1995): 3.
Cleghorn, Reese. "Here It Is: A User's Manual for J-Schools," American
Journalism Review (September 1994): 4, 11.
Cohen, Jacob and Patricia Cohen. Applied Multiple Regression/Correlation
Analysis for the Behavioral Sciences (Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum and
Associates, 1983).
Consoli, John P. "Why We Cover Campuses," Editor & Publisher (September 3,
1994): 6.
"Curriculum Notes," The Chronicle of Higher Education (February 10, 1995):
A14.
Gold, Joe. "Swatting at Gadflies: Will Real-World Journalism Be Banished from
the University of Arizona?" Tuscon Weekly (March 2-8, 1995): 16-20.
Gordon, Jim. "Does the Bell Toll for Us?" News Photographer (August 1994):
6-8, 16.
Gordon, Jim. "Editor's Response," News Photographer (August 1994): 10.
Gordon, Jim. "In and Out at Bowling Green," News Photographer (August 1994):
10.
Gordon, Jim. "Photo Finish at Kent State," News Photographer (June 1994):
4-5.
Gordon, Jim. "Regional Editors Cited for Service," News Photographer (August
1994): 7.
Heller, Robert. "Photojournalism Education: Contradictions for the Nineties,"
Journalism Educator 46:1 (Spring 1991): 29-31.
King, Marsha. "Ire and Dismay Over Proposed UW Cuts," Seattle Times
(December 2, 1994): B1-2.
King, Marsha. "Reaction Strong to UW's Proposed $18 Million in Cuts," Seattle
Times (December 1, 1994): A1, 18.
Kosicki, Gerald M. and Lee B. Becker. "Undergrad Enrollments Decline;
Programs Feel Budget Squeeze," Journalism Educator 49:3 (Autumn 1994): 4-14.
Morse, Mike. "The Worth of a Photo Program," News Photographer (August
1994): 11.
Nelson, Dean. "Campus Mergers and Acquisitions," The Quill (September 1994):
36-37.
Smith, Tim. "Taking the Editor to Task," News Photographer (August 1994): 10.
Stein, M.L. "Big Lift for Journalism School; Faculty-Student Committee Votes
to Save U. of Washington's School of Communications, but There are Still
Two
Hurdles to Clear," Editor & Publisher (March 25, 1995): 14.
Stein, M.L. "University of Washington's School of Communications in Danger
of Being Killed in State Budget-Cutting Move," Editor & Publisher
(January
21, 1995): 16.
Stein, M.L. "J-Schools Besieged, Not Endangered," Editor & Publisher (August
27, 1994): 11-12.
Turk, Judy VanSlyke. "From the President," AEJMC News (March 1995): 2.
[1] Ju
dy VanSlyke Turk, "From the President," AEJMC News (March 1995): 2.
[2] Geral
d M. Kosicki and Lee B. Becker, "Undergrad Enrollments Decline; Programs Feel
Budget Squeeze," Journalism Educator 49:3 (Autumn 1994): 13.
[3] Ibid.
[4] Joe Gold, "Swatting at Gadflies: Will Real-World Journalism be
Banished from the
University of Arizona?" Tuscon Weekly (March
2-8, 1995), p. 20.
[5] "Curriculum Notes," The Chronicle of Higher Education
(February 10, 1995):
A14.
[6] Ibid. Also see John Bebow, "U-M
Will Remove Journalism Program From Its Curriculum,"
Detroit Ne
ws (January 15, 1995).
[7] Marsha King, "Reaction Strong to UW's Proposed $1
8 Million in Cuts," Seattle Times
(December 1, 1994): A1, 18; an
d Marsha King, "Ire and Dismay Over Proposed
UW Cuts," Seattle T
imes (December 2, 1994): B1-2. Also see "Vertical Pain
at the U
of W," Seattle Post-Intelligencer (December 6, 1994): A20; and
Alex Edelstein, "Communication Key to UW and to Society," Seattle
Post-Intelligencer (December 17, 1994): A15.
[8] See M.L. Stein, "Big Life
for Journalism School; Faculty-Student Committee Votes to
Save
U. of Washington's School of Communications, But There are Still Two Hurdles
to
Clear," Editor & Publisher (March 25, 1995): 14.
[9] Dean
Nelson, "Campus Mergers and Acquisitions," The Quill (September 1994): 37.
[1
0] Nelson, op. cit., p. 37.
[11] Mike Morse, "The Worth of a Photo Program,"
News Photographer (August 1994):
11; and Jim Gordon, "Photo Fini
sh At Kent State," News Photographer (June
1994): 5.
[12] Jim
Gordon, "Does the Bell Toll for Us?" News Photographer (August 1994): 7;
also see another Gordon piece, "Regional Editors Cited for Service,"
on the
same page of the same issue.
[13] Robert Heller, "Photojournalism Ed
ucation: Contradictions for the Nineties,"
Journalism Educator
46:1 (Spring 1991): 31.
[14] Jacob Cohen and Patricia Cohen, Applied Multiple
Regression/Correlation
Analysis for the Behavioral Sciences (Hi
llsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum and
Associates, 1983): 9.
[15] Do
uglas Birkhead, "Survey: J-History Courses Likely to Survive Journalism Budget
Cuts," AJHA Intelligencer (February 1995): 3.
[16] Ibid.
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