WHAT YOU WANT IS WHAT YOU GET:
                            INDIVIDUALISM AS A CULTURAL VALUE
                                  IN PRIMETIME TV ADVERTISING
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
                                               Joyce M. Wolburg
 
                                                        and
 
                                               Ronald E. Taylor
 
 
 
 
                                         Department of Advertising
                                     University of Tennessee-Knoxville
                                       476 Communications Building
                                              Knoxville, Tn 37996
                                                 (615) 974-3048
 
 
 
 
 
 
                                        AEJMC Advertising Division
                                 Professional Freedom & Responsibility
 
 
 
                                                     Abstract
 
         Individualism is a central value in America. This study explores the
depth and the ways that
American television advertising reflects individualism. Four types of main
message strategies -- (1)
The Esteemed Individual, (2) The Efficient Individual, (3) The Physically
Attractive Individual, and
(4) The "I Am Me" Individual -- and six types of contextual cues related to
individualism are
identified. This study questions whether advertising reflects individualism in a
manner that is
equally available to all citizens regardless of gender, race, and age.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
                                                  Introduction
 
         Individualism is widely accepted as one of the core values in American
culture (Lodge 1975;
Hofstede 1991; Triandis 1989). Lodge defines it as the belief that "fulfillment
lies in an essentially
lonely struggle in what amounts to a wilderness where the fit survive -- and
where, if you do not
survive, you are somehow unfit" (p. 10). Like all values, individualism is
thought to be pervasive
and reflected in society's institutions as well as in its cultural products such
as novels, films,
television programs, popular music, and advertising. Yet, the pervasive,
taken-for-granted nature
of values can make them nearly invisible to the members of a given culture.
         The following study explicates the ways in which messages of
individualism appear in
American network primetime television advertising.  The study begins with an
overview of
individualism in a historical context and proceeds to an interpretive analysis
of advertising content.
In a sample of 169 commercials the study identifies four main message strategies
and six types of
contextual cues used by advertisers to appeal to Americans' strong cultural
belief in individualism.
This study is not intended to be a census of all the ways in which advertisers
make use of
individualism nor to provide an exact count of the instances of individualism
nor to compute the
percentage compositions of the various ways in which individualism may be
portrayed.  Rather it
is intended to explore, first of all, the depth and the variation of the
portrayal of individualism as an
ingrained value, to bring its use to a conscious level and to make available for
discussion the taken-
for-granted nature of individualism that is interwoven with advertising
messages.
         Often to recognize what value is being portrayed one must be able to
recognize what value(s)
is missing.  For example, in one commercial analyzed for this study, an
automobile parts distributor
employed a male-only cast of employees and shoppers with the exhortation "you
may feel like the
customer, but you're the boss because you know what's best for you."
Individualism appears at a
very obvious level by indicating that individual decision-making is to be
preferred to group decision-
making.  On a more subtle level, however, the absence of any female actors as
employees or
shoppers delivers a gender message that defines, elaborates, and limits
individualism by indicating
the differences in what men and women are concerned with and own.  So in fact
while it's
impossible to "count" things that are not visible, it is possible to record
their absence.
 
                                             An Overview of Individualism
         This study first places individualism in a historical context,
summarizes the work of major
social scientists who have studied individualism as a cultural value, and
reviews advertising studies
of cultural values.
         Individualism In Historical Context. During medieval times the concept
of individualism
had no place in the fixed social hierarchy.  Through the 15th century, medieval
social philosophy
was wholly dominated by St. Augustine's explanation that God had assigned each
person a fixed
place in the community (Nisbet 1973). Each person was equated with his place in
this hierarchy, and
any separation from the social roles assigned by God, society, and family was
unthinkable
(Baumeister 1987).
         The early modern era (16th to 18th century) marked increased social
mobility and the
cessation of the fixed social hierarchy. The blacksmith's son, for example, was
no longer tied to the
moral duty to become a blacksmith himself (MacIntyre 1981). Conceptions of
individuality began
to be articulated, and the basic unit in society began to shift from the
community to the individual.
For the first time it was conceivable that the individual's interests could be
in conflict with those of
society.
           John Locke became England's most prominent spokesman for the
religious, political, and
economic freedoms of man. According to Locke, all men were inherently good, were
endowed with
inalienable rights by god, and were of equal privilege in the pursuit of rank.
Each man shaped his
own destiny through personal efforts.
         Locke's political philosophy evolved differently in various countries.
In England, Locke's
ideas were augmented by Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill, and today Britons
care far less than
Americans about competition than the productive effort to serve the country's
needs as defined by
government (Lodge).
         In France, Locke's notions of individualism that emerged in the 17th
century were overtaken
by Rousseau's 18th century idea of the General Will, which he defined as the
collection of the
individual wills of the people.
         Locke's ideas came to greater fruition in the United States during the
fight for independence.
The Declaration of Independence states, for example,
         We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created
equal, that they are endowed
         by the Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are
Life, Liberty, and the
         pursuit of Happiness.
         Through the Bill of Rights and the 14th Amendment, the U.S.
Constitution provides federal
and state assurances that individuals will be protected against unjust acts of
government that would
deprive any person of life, liberty, or property without due process of law.
         The French political philosopher, Alexis de Tocqueville, coined the
word "individualism"
in De la Democratie en Amerique, which described his experiences and
observations of the
American people of the 1830s (Miller). According to de Tocqueville
 
         Individualism is a calm and considered feeling which disposes each
citizen to isolate himself
         from the mass of his fellows and withdraw into the circle of family and
friends; with this
         little society formed to his taste, he gladly leaves the greater
society to look after itself.
 
         Tocqueville further wrote that as individualism grows
 
         there are more and more people who though neither rich nor powerful
enough to have much
         hold over others, have gained or kept enough wealth and enough
understanding to look after
         their own needs. Such folk owe no man anything and hardly expect
anything from anybody.
         They form the habit of thinking of themselves in isolation and imagine
that their whole
         destiny is in their hands (Bellah, p. 37).
         How Social Scientists See Individualism. The polar opposite of
individualism is
collectivism, a view that holds that the unit of survival lies in the group, not
in the individual.  The
relative presence of individualism and collectivism within various cultures has
been discussed by
many researchers across disciplines that study relationships. Social
psychologist Harry Triandis
(1985) believes that individualism/collectivism is perhaps the most important
dimension of cultural
differences in social behavior across the diverse cultures of the world.
         The Dutch social scientist, Geert Hofstede, has researched the many
ways in which
individualism and collectivism affect family life, occupations, education, and
relationships in the
workplace. For example, he notes that in most collectivist societies the family
consists of many
people living closely together -- not just the parents and other children, but
grandparents, uncles,
aunts, and servants. This "extended family" is the only secure protection one
has against the
hardships of life. One is loyal to this group over a lifetime, and breaking this
loyalty is one of the
most severe offenses a person can commit.
         While single parent families are commonplace, individualist families
typically consist of two
parents, the child, and possibly other children, but other relatives live
elsewhere and are not seen
often. This "nuclear family" teaches the child to be independent, and children
are expected to leave
the parental home as soon as they can stand on their own feet. In these
societies, once children are
independent, they reduce their relationships with the parents.
         Hofstede also distinguished among cultures on the basis of
communication from "high-
context" to "low-context," a dimension originally described by anthropologist
Edward T. Hall
(1976).
         High-context communication is typical of collectivist cultures and
requires little information
to be spoken or written because most of the message is either in the physical
environment or within
the person. Very little is in the coded, explicit part of the message. In
contrast, individualist cultures
typically use low-context communication, which gives most of the information
explicitly. The
United States and Japan are often cited as examples of low-context and
high-context, respectively.
American contracts, for example, are typically lengthy with details precisely
described, while
Japanese contracts are very short and inexplicit. The Japanese also place more
confidence in verbal
agreements than in legal contracts, while Americans place higher confidence in
legal contracts than
verbal agreements.
         These differences in family, communication, education, occupations, and
the workplace are
summarized in Table 1, and a more detailed list of characteristics of
individualist cultures is
provided in Appendix A.
         Table 2 provides a summary of the views of individualism held by
leading anthropologists.
 
 
 
                                                    TABLE 1
                                   Hofstede's Key Differences Between
                                  Collectivist and Individualist Societies
 
 
Collectivist
                                                           Individualist
 
People are born into extended families or
other ingroups which continue to protect
them in exchange for loyalty.                              Everyone grows up to
look after him/herself
                                                           and his/her immediate
(nuclear) family only.
 
Identity is based in the social network to
which one belongs.                                         Identity is based in
the individual.
 
Children learn to think in terms of 'we.'                  Children learn to
think in terms of 'I.'
 
Harmony should always be maintained and
direct confrontations avoided.                             Speaking one's mind
is a characteristic of an
                                                           honest person.
 
High-context communication.                                Low-context
communication.
 
Trespassing [infractions of rules] leads to
shame and loss of face for self and group.                 Trespassing
[infractions of rules] leads to
                                                           guilt and loss of
self-respect.
 
Purpose of education is learning how to do.
                                                           Purpose of education
is learning how to
                                                           learn.
 
Diplomas provide entry to higher status
groups.                                                    Diplomas increase
economic worth and/or
                                                           self-respect.
 
Employer--employee relationship is
perceived in moral terms, like a family link.              Employer -- employee
relationship is a
                                                           contract supposed to
be based on mutual
                                                           advantage.
 
Hiring and promotion decisions take
employees' ingroup into account.                           Hiring and promotion
decisions are supposed
                                                           to be based on skills
and rules only.
 
Management is management of groups.                        Management is
management of individuals.
 
Relationship prevails over task.                           Task prevails over
relationship.
 
Hofstede 1991, p. 67.
 
 
 
 
 
                                                    TABLE 2
                         Leading Researchers' Conceptions of Individualism
 
 
Kluckhohn, Clyde
Anthropologist,
1951
 
                                Envisioned three clusters of dichotomies
including "Man and Man"
                                (one's relationship to self and others.) He
noted that priority is
                                given either to the individual or to the
collectivity, to egoism or
                                altruism, and to autonomy or dependency.
 
Kluckhohn, Florence
& Strodbeck, Fred
Anthropologists,
1961                            Envisioned five orientations including the
relational. This
                                orientation includes the lineal, collateral, and
individualistic. Lineal
                                societies have clear lines of authority which
dominate subordinate
                                relationships. Collateral (collectivist)
societies value the goals of
                                the group over those of the individual. In
individualistic societies
                                people are autonomous of the group.
 
 
Hall, Edward T.
Anthropologist,
1959                            Described a Primary Message System that includes
ten facets
                                experienced differently by society than by
individuals. The ten are:
                                interaction, association, subsistence,
bisexuality, territoriality,
                                temporality, learning, play, defense, and
exploitation.
 
 
Hofstede, Geert
Social scientist,
1984, 1991                      Described four value dimensions including
                                individualism/collectivism. "Individualism
pertains to societies in
                                which the ties between individuals are loose;
everyone is expected
                                to look after himself or herself and his or her
immediate family.
                                Collectivism as its opposite pertains to
societies in which people
                                from birth onwards are integrated into strong,
cohesive ingroups,
                                which throughout people's lifetime continue to
protect them in
                                exchange for unquestioning loyalty."
 
 
Trompenaars, Fons
Social Scientist,
1993                            Envisioned five dimensions and described the
choice between
                                individualism and collectivism as a conflict
between what each of
                                us wants as an individual and the interests of
the group we belong
                                to. "Do we relate to others by discovering what
each one of us
                                individually wants and then trying to negotiate
the differences, or
                                do we place ahead of this some shared concept of
the public and
                                collective good?"
 
 
         Hofstede notes that affluent countries are statistically very likely to
favor individualism over
collectivism because as the wealth increases in a country, people have resources
that allow personal
expression.
         The storyteller in the village market is replaced by TV sets, first one
per village, but soon
         more. In wealthy Western family homes every family member may have his
or her own TV
         set. The caravan through the desert is replaced by a number of buses,
and these by a larger
         number of motor cars, until each adult family member drives a different
car. The village hut
         in which the entire family lives and sleeps together is replaced by a
house with a number of
         private rooms. Collective life is replaced by individual life (p. 76).
 
         Hofstede raises an important point concerning the right to privacy.
Collectivist countries
offer little privacy, but individualist countries value it highly. Most
Americans occupy as large a
house as they can afford and provide a separate room for each child if
economically possible.
Separate bedrooms carry the added likelihood that each person may have his or
her own TV set,
stereo, telephone, etc. Some TV sets are placed in a room shared by all members
of the household
and have a collective use, while other sets are placed in bedrooms for
individual use.
         The Dutch social scientist, Fons Trompenaars (1993), observes that
within collectivist
societies decision-making uses sustained efforts to achieve consensus.
Collectivist societies
intuitively refrain from voting because this shows disrespect to the individuals
who are against the
majority decision. He sees consensus seeking as a time-consuming approach but
one that usually
allows the decision to be implemented smoothly and efficiently.
         Individualistic societies usually handle dissention by a majority vote
-- a practice that leads
to a quick decision that is often difficult to implement. Companies sometimes
come to realize that
the organization has conspired to defeat decisions that managers never liked or
agreed to.
         Advertising and The Study of Cultural Values. While many advertising
studies have
provided a content analysis of ads, very few have specifically addressed
cultural values. More
popular research topics have been the portrayal of gender roles and the use of
different advertising
appeals across cultures. A review of the leading advertising and marketing
journals from 1980-1993
produced only 14 content analysis studies that enumerated values either cross
culturally or within
one culture. Eleven of the studies addressed multiple values; two focused on
"inner-directedness
versus other-directedness" which is similar but not identical to
individualism/collectivism (Zinkhan
and Shermohamad 1986; Zinkhan, Hong, and Lawson 1990); and one focused on "time"
as a cultural
value (Gross and Sheth 1989). The number of values coded in the 11
multiple-value studies ranged
from as many as 42 (Pollay 1983) to as few as four (Frith and Wesson 1991),
which demonstrates
the differing ways that advertising research has conceptualized and measured the
core American
values in advertising.
         American advertising is a cultural product intended to persuade an
audience. Advertising
messages are intended to influence behavior by creating a desire for a product
that will ultimately
lead to purchase behavior, or by influencing public opinion to generate votes
for a political
candidate. In other instances, advertising is used to create favorable attitudes
toward companies to
enhance their image, which ultimately may increase sales.
         In order for these persuasive messages to be effective, advertisers
"appeal" to human needs
such as security, love, attractiveness, status, convenience, and
self-fulfillment. Textbooks of creative
advertising list as many as 24 appeal strategies plus 11 different kinds of
emotional appeals
including excitement, fear, pleasure, poignancy, and pride (Moriarty 1991).
These appeals are
closely linked to Maslow's hierarchy of needs, which proceeds from lower to
higher as follows:
physiological, safety and security, belongingness, esteem, and
self-actualization (Maslow 1970).
While American advertising uses appeals that are clearly related to these needs,
Hofstede notes that
Maslow's hierarchy reflects Western thinking. The goal of self-actualization or
realizing the creative
potential within the individual "can only be the supreme motivation in an
individualistic society"
(p. 73). In a collectivist culture, the interest of the group will be
actualized, and the accomplishment
of this goal may require self-effacement from many members.
         One of the ways that messages of individualism are carried to consumers
is through the
advertising practice of writing to the individual. Standard textbooks frequently
teach writers to
imagine they are writing to just one person. Nelson (1989) recommends the
following:
         Although what you write is reproduced for multiple readership, write as
if for a single
         reader. Attempt to maintain through mass communication the illusion of
a salesman-to-
         buyer relationship. Your writing should be informal, conversational,
and where appropriate,
         intimate. A logical way of developing a one-reader feel in copy is by
writing in second
         person. The word you is deservedly commonplace in advertising copy (p.
152).
         Advertising giant David Ogilvy also instructs copywriters to address
the consumer as an
individual. Ogilvy says
         When people read your copy, they are alone. Pretend you are writing
each of them a letter
         on behalf of your client. One human being to another; second person
singular (1985, p. 80).
 
         Not only are advertising appeals meaningful to members of a culture
because they tap into
basic needs, but because the creative execution of the ads is able to place the
appeal within a context
that reflects the culture. An ad for a cosmetic product targeted toward women
may appeal to the
need for attractiveness, but the background cues such as the presence of
admiring men provide rich
cultural material that may deliver powerful messages of individualism and other
core cultural values.
These cues are meaningful when considering that the way men and women interact
and form
relationships differs in collectivist and individualist cultures. For example,
people in Western
cultures choose friends or mates based on attraction, personality, and personal
preferences unlike
some collectivist cultures that arrange marriages between people based on other
needs.
         Although the incidental, background details within an ad may seem
insignificant, "a well-
crafted message, presented against a backdrop of props that 'make sense' and
reinforce the intended
meaning, can convey a powerful and persuasive image...The impact of the
best-intentioned message
may be eroded if viewers' expectations regarding the appropriate context are
violated" (Solomon and
Greenberg 1993, p. 11).
         Individualism is such a commonly accepted value within American culture
that the research
question for this study is not whether advertising carries messages of
individualism -- it clearly does
-- but rather how these messages are carried. How are the main messages
presented, and how do
contextual cues support these messages?
 
                                                    Procedure
         A set of television commercials that aired during from 8:00 p.m. to
11:00 p.m. (ET) was used
in the study. All network programming on ABC, CBS, NBC, and FOX was taped during
primetime,
Thursday, October 14, 1993, using four standard VCRs with 1/2 inch video tape.
The particular date
was chosen because it had passed the sweeps period in which special programming
was aired, and
it fell on a night that contained only regular programming. The network
programming of October
14 drew a rating of 43.8 and a share of 73. The average rating/share figures
that week ranged from
a low of 33.2/62 to a high of 52.8/84. The weekly average was 45.7/75, which was
very close to
Thursday's figures.
         The tapes produced a total of 11 hours of programming. After
eliminating local advertising,
promotions for programs, and repetitions, a total of 169 different national or
regional ads remained.
         Since other researchers have not coded ads for individualism messages,
there was no
previous coding scheme available; thus, the only possible method was to allow
one to emerge that
could systematically answer the questions posed by the researcher.
 
                                                 Analytical Framework
         Analysis of the commercials involved four distinct stages which are
diagrammed in Figure
1. Intuitively, it seems that a product or service that is individualized in the
manufacturing process
would be a more likely candidate for an appeal to individualism. Therefore, the
first stage involved
classifying the products and services into three groups, and the second stage
involved determining
the presence/absence of individualism messages so as to answer this research
question:
         RQ1:  Do messages of individualism appear across all product
categories?
 
 
                                              THE ANALYTICAL PROCESS
 
Stage. 1  Classify what is advertised by type among the 169 ads.
 
Individual                 Collective                 Neutral
(52 products)              (1 product)                (116 products)
 
Stage 2.  Identify elements and presence of "individualism."
 
                  152 product commercials contain main messages and/or
contextual cues.
 
Stage 3.  Collapse elements into main message strategies.  Four types of
individualism are
identified.
 
                                    78 product commercials reflect
                                             a.  The Esteemed Individual
                                             b.  The Efficient Individual
                                             c.  The Physically Attractive
Individual
                                             d.  The "I Am Me" Individual
 
Stage 4.  Re-examine the 169 commercials for contextual cues of individualism. A
total of 152
ads contained contextual cues that reflect:
 
                                                                        a.
gender
                                                                        b. race
                                                                        c.
ethnic group
                                                                        d. age
                                                                        e.
education
                                                                        f.
recognition
 
         Stage 1.  First, it was noted that in a culture that values
individualism some products will
make sense only within that culture because the products are manufactured with
the individual in
mind.  For example, individual credit cards make more sense in such cultures and
less sense in
collectivist cultures.
         Even within a culture that values individualism, some products are
collectivist in nature
because they are owned or created by the government, not available for private
ownership, and are
equally available to all.  Examples include highways, national parks, and
defense groups.
         Some products, such as food or modes of transportation, could be used
equally by people in
either a collectivist or individualist culture. Thus, the first step in
developing a coding scheme was
to classify the products and services advertised into three discrete categories:
         1.  exclusively individualist-oriented products and services
         2.  exclusively collectivist-oriented products and services
         3.  neither exclusively individualist nor exclusively collectivist
(neutral)
         Of the 169 products and services advertised, 52 were designed
exclusively for individual use,
one was for collective use, and 116 were products and services that were
neutral. Exclusively
individualistic products and services included personal credit cards, insurance
for personal property,
cars, cosmetics, long distance service, and consumer electronics that require
single person use.  The
one collectivist product was the U.S. Army, and the neutral products included
transportation, food,
OTC drugs, cleaning products, and retail stores.  The majority of products in
the neutral category
were for food and OTC medicines.  Table 3 shows the number of products
advertised by product
category and by individual/collective/neutral designations.
 
 
                                                       TABLE 3
                        Product Categories and Frequency by Classification
 
Individual Products                  Collective Products
Neutral Products
 
Product                Freq.         Product                Freq.
Product                Freq.
 
Car/Truck
Long Distance
Insurance
Electronics
Make-up
Credit Cards
Real Estate
Diet
Car Rental
                       25
                       5
                       5
                       5
                       4
                       4
                       2
                       1
                       1             Army                   1             Food
 
Medicine
                                                                          Stores
 
Restaurants
 
Detergent
 
services
 
Toothpaste
 
Shampoo/Deod.
 
Miscellaneous          32
 
20
 
14
 
12
 
7
 
8
 
6
 
4
 
13
 
 
Total                  52(31%)       Total                  1(1%)         Total
116(69%)
         Some examples of products packaged for individual use included Snickers
and Nestle's
Crunch, which are single serving candy bars; Jell-O, an already prepared snack
available in
individual-size cups; and Lean Cuisine, a single serving microwavable meal.
         Stage 2. After noting the distribution of individual, collective, and
neutral products, the next
stage required identifying main elements of individualism and locating them
within product
categories. "Main message element" and "contextual element" were selected as the
units of analysis.
Main message element was defined for this research as the "intended overall
impression to be gained
from viewing the commercial."  Most often it could be deduced by asking after
viewing the
commercial "What will happen if I buy and use the advertised product?  Using
Hofstede's key
differences in collectivist and individualist societies displayed in Table 1,
one coder rated each
commercial as either having or not having a main message element incorporating
individualism.
Possible answers to the "What will happen question" related to individualism
included, among many
others:  I can take better care of myself or my family, I will become more "me,"
my children will
become more independent, I will learn how to learn, I will gain self-respect, I
will win a promotion
or increase my skill level, I will be better or more efficient at accomplishing
my tasks, I will be more
attractive, I will be healthier.
         Each commercial was coded into only one main message element. The
message elements
were:
         (1) Take better care of myself/my family
         (2) Become more "me"
         (3) Make children more independent
         (4) Learn how to learn
         (5) Gain self-respect
         (6) Win a promotion or increase skill level
         (7) Work more efficiently
         (8) Become more attractive/healthier
 
Main message elements that focused on product performance, demonstration, uses,
and applications
were not coded as messages of individualism.
         Contextual elements were defined as "secondary characteristics of the
commercial that
reflect an individualist society but that are not part of the main message
strategy."  The set of
contextual elements was derived from the same set of questions for identifying
main message
elements.  For example, "I can take better care of myself or my family" produces
a main element
of individualism.  However, using an identifiable nuclear family in a Carpet
Science commercial
that focuses on a product performance message was classified as having a
contextual cue
as were certain camera angles and techniques that privileged an individual point
of view, such as
a tight close-up showing individual reaction or individual satisfaction. The
contextual cues identified
for analysis were:  gender, race, ethnic group, age, education, and recognition
ceremonies.  Thus,
for any given commercial, the possible codings were (1) does/does not have a
main message of
individualism, (2) does/does not contain one or more contextual cues related to
individualism.
         In all, the set of commercials was viewed five times.  After the
research questions had been
formulated, one researcher served as the primary coder and a second coder viewed
a sample of ads
for each question.  In areas of uncertainty, the two coders viewed the
commercials together and
agreed upon a designation.  Again, the purpose of this study is not to provide
an exact count of
instances of individualism but rather to explore the depth and the variety of
its use.  Intercoder
agreement was extremely high; that is, the two coders agreed upon the
presence/absence of
individualism in all messages analyzed.
         Observation 1.  Advertising promotes the cultural value of
individualism across
product categories: products designed for individual use, products that are
collectivist in
nature, and products that are neutral.
         A total of 42 (81 percent) of the 52 commercials for products designed
for individual use
incorporated messages of individualism; 39 (33 percent) of the 116 commercials
for neutral products
used an individualism message; and the one collective product (100 percent of
the total) delivered
an individualism message. Overall, the sample of 169 commercials used
individualism 81 times (48
percent of the time). (See Table 4).
         Among the individual products the car ads frequently appealed to
self-interests. A young
woman in a Chevy Lumina ad tells viewers
 
         The simpler my life is the better. I don't need more stuff. I need good
stuff. You sure don't
         need a car that costs as much as my parents' house. I think my car
should be an ostentatious
         display of common sense.
 
 
                                                        TABLE 4
                                Presence of Individualism in 169 Television
Commercials
 
 
Product Type              # Commercials    # With Individualism Message
Percent With
 
Individualism Message
 
Individual           52                    42
81%
 
Collective           01                    01
100%
 
Neutral              116                   38
33%
 
All Products         169                   81
48%
         While many neutral products contained messages that primarily focused
on the efficacy of
the product, others appealed to self-interest. A narrative ad for Adult Strength
Tylenol showed a
young woman arriving at the hospital to give birth to twins, giving her husband
a kiss, holding the
babies for the first time, experiencing moments of pain in the hospital which
were remedied by
Tylenol, and finally being at home recollecting the events. With deep emotion
she tells us
         The pain was more than I bargained for, but the Tylenol took care of my
pain so I could take
         care of my new family.
 
         Because this ad personalizes the product by showing the user in a slice
of life situation, it
conveys a great deal of cultural information. This ad resonates with the viewers
because it reflects
the culture of nuclear families rather than extended families, where there are
usually no other family
members to take care of new babies. The husband probably can't take time off
from work so the
mother can't afford to be in pain and unable to care for the children because
there is no one else to
depend on. Male viewers can also identify with carrying heavy responsibilities
that leave no time
to be sick.
         The remaining 88 commercials in the two categories focused their
messages on product
features or product performance.  Typical messages among ads promoting product
performance
were: Extra Sugarfree Gum cleans your teeth when you can't brush after eating;
Circuit City offers
six months interest free on purchases; Ripple Crisp Cereal has ripples to make
it crunchy; Effidac
gives 24 hour relief from cold symptoms; Branola offers the taste of granola
with the fiber of bran;
Hershey's Chocolate promises there will never be another unfinished Symphony
Bar; and Duracell's
dependability is one of the great unsolved mysteries.
         The one purely collectivist product, the U.S. Army, also used an
individualism message. The
ad focused on a woman who tells us
         if the communication data isn't programmed right, 5,000 troops could be
cut off, but I'd
         never let that happen to my brigade.
         By highlighting the personal sense of responsibility and satisfaction
from accomplishment
from a single person, the Army values individualism by showing how to stand out
in the crowd and
"be all that you can be."  A more collectivist execution might focus on the
pride and satisfaction of
belonging to the group, and accomplishment through teamwork.
         One exception to the individualization of products was exemplified in
an ad for Quincy's
Restaurant. Viewers look at scenes of country life and see people enjoying each
other's company
at Quincy's. The voiceover says
         One of the best things about livin' in these parts is you get to know
everyone before you're
         done. The boys at the fillin' station, the ladies at the Superette, the
crowd that's always
         eating at the Quincy's. You can blame that on the country
sideboard...But me, I figure folks
         like ourselves always end up 'round the dinner table together. Only
makes sense with
         someplace with good food...We like folks like you.
         Observation 2.  Not only does advertising appeal to individualism
across product types,
it does so in a similar way across product categories.
         Several comparative schemes were developed to test if individualism
when applied to an
individualist product somehow works differently than when it is applied to a
collectivist or neutral
product.  As one might expect, there is a quantitative difference but the
qualitative nature of the
appeal seemed not to differ.  The eight elements of individualism identified in
the first viewing of
the commercials were present in both product categories.
         Stage 3. Following the analysis of elements across the three types of
product categories, the
following research question was posed:
         RQ2   When it appeals to individualism, how does advertising use
individualism in the
main message strategy?
         The eight message elements were collapsed into four better-defined main
message strategies,
which produced a typology of "The Esteemed Individual," "The Efficient
Individual," "The
Physically Attractive Individual," and the "I Am Me" Individual. (See Table 5
for a distribution of
these messages across product types.)
         The "Esteemed Individual" is made up of the message elements of "take
care of
myself/family," "gain self-respect," and part of the "become more me" element.
         The "Efficient Individual" is made up of the message elements of
"children more
independent," "learn how to learn," "win a promotion or increase skill level,"
and "become more
efficient."
         The "Physically Attractive Individual" is derived from the message
elements of "more
attractive/healthier."
         The "I Am Me Individual" was a distinct category within the message
element of "become
more me." Repeated viewing of the commercials in the "become more me" element
demonstrated
that within this category there were two distinct appeals. The first uses an
appeal where the product
promises to help the consumer reach a state of "me-ness." These appeals were
subsumed by the
"Esteemed Individual" category. The second appeal, however, is used when the
state of "me-ness"
is assumed and the product or service becomes a way not of achieving this state
but of symbolically
representing it. Within messages of individualism, it holds the value of
individualism as supreme,
as discussed below.
 
                                                     TABLE 5
                           Distribution of Message of Individualism Across
Product Category
 
 
                                                  Message Type
 
Product Type           The Esteemed
                       Individual             The Efficient
                                              Individual             The
Physically
                                                                     Attractive
                                                                     Individual
The "I am Me:
 
Individual"
 
Individual             50%                    31%                    12%
07%
 
Collective             100%                   --                     --
--
 
Neutral                55%                    24%                    18%
03%
         Observation 3.  Advertising uses four types of messages of
individualism:  The
Esteemed Individual, the Efficient Individual, the Physically Attractive
Individual, and the "I
Am Me" Individual.
         The Esteemed Individual. The esteemed individual is one who feels
better about
himself/herself psychologically or emotionally because of the use of certain
products.  For example,
an ad for Auto Zone shows a close-up of the store manager who elevates the
importance and the
status of the consumer by saying
         ...Nobody can stock everything, but we stock more than most. And how do
we know which
         ones to carry? That's easy. We listen to our customers because nobody
knows better about
         what you want than you. So the next time you walk through that door,
you might think of
         yourself as a customer, but we think of you as the boss.
         Even seemingly unlikely products reflect messages of self-esteem.  For
example, a man tells
his little daughter, "Somebody must think I'm special because I've got Post
Premium Raisin Bran,
not just any raisin bran." The final line tells us it "makes everybody feel like
somebody special."
         In an ad for the Ford Probe we see a little boy dressed in white flying
a white paper airplane
while a voiceover tells us
         Within us all lies a hidden child. A child whose heart soars with the
magic of earthbound
         flight. A child who sees adventure in every step of the road.
 
Images of a white Probe traveling on a country road are shown while the
voiceover describes the
car as
         A pure and simple sports coupe designed to release your inner child and
teach him to drive.
 
         Visine Extra is a neutral product that could take various approaches
but taps into the social
needs of the individual to look energetic and rested. This ad says
         Red, irritated eyes say things about you that aren't true. Red eyes
make you look worn out,
         stressed out, or upset, even if you're not. Look your best with Visine
Extra.
         Some products enhance the individual's self-esteem by performing
humanitarian acts
intended to help the community. An American Express ad that addresses needs for
individualism
and collectivism shows a spokesman telling the viewer about an organization
called Share Our
Strength. The spokesman tells us that Share Our Strength tries to help hungry
people by getting
resources to communities, and that viewers can help in the charge against hunger
by using the
American Express credit card. American Express donates up to $5 million at the
rate of 2 cents per
card purchase to help provide meals.
         Although the product benefits the community, it also transforms the
individual by raising
self-esteem. People are not asked to contribute directly to Share Our Strength;
they are asked to
make a credit card purchase. Thus, the ad encourages individuals to give to
charity in a way that also
benefits both the individual and business.
         Food Lion uses a similar approach by telling viewers of a program to
help children who
suffer from child abuse. The ad shows children at a puppet show with the
spokesperson saying
 
         These puppets are teaching these children how to prevent or interrupt
the cycle of child
         abuse -- how to know in a non-threatening way the difference between
discipline and abuse.
         Years ago Community Way Days was established by Food Lion people to
help fund
         programs like this. For these children it means knowing who to talk to
if they have a
         problem, and for Food Lion people it means a chance to share.
 
         Food Lion gets public recognition for community work through its
advertising, and viewers
satisfy their individual needs to feel good about themselves by helping others.
         The Efficient Individual. In an individualist society, tasks and task
completion prevail over
relationships. Certain products promise to make people more efficient in their
work and household
tasks.
         An ad for Overnight Express from the U.S. Postal service offers to help
the individual
compete in the workplace. The voiceover says
         A startling proposal heads for New Orleans. A hard fought contract is
Chicago bound. Three
         pairs of contact lenses are expected in Tampa...We trace; we track; we
deliver for you.
 
         In a domestic setting a young woman in a Tide ad tells us
 
         It's not only tough to make a dollar these days, it's tough to keep it.
I know how hard my
         husband works. He's always on the run, in a hurry, and he gets very
dirty. My job is saving
         some of the money.
 
         After explaining how Tide helps her save money, she ends by saying, "I
want to do the best
I can do for my family. We're a team."  According to the message in the ad, Tide
not only allows
her to get the clothes clean and save money over the bargain brand, but it
allows her to feel
important by making an essential contribution to the family.
         Some products claim to enhance or transform the individual
economically.  For example, a
Snickers ad shows a professional photographer at a soccer game who tells us he
must stay focused
because "if hunger gets in the way, some other guy grabs my shot." While going
after his shot, he
explains, "Hey, these guys aren't the only ones competing out here." The tagline
for the product is
"There's a hunger inside you," which seems to refer to both the physical hunger
and the competitive
hunger to win.
         The photographer is economically motivated to compete for the best shot
because he will
have excelled at his job, and he may be financially rewarded. The ad also taps
into social needs to
compete for the sense of pride and accomplishment that comes with being the
best.
         An ad for ITT shows how to efficiently attain the education that will
enhance competitive
skills in the job market. The ad compares non-graduates of ITT who have been
unable to find a job
after graduation to ITT graduates who finish school more quickly and have a job
waiting for them,
arranged by ITT's placement service.
         The Physically Attractive Individual. Some of the clearest examples of
messages of
individualism appear among cosmetic products, which express the need for
physical attractiveness.
A Salon Selectives Shampoo ad shows two beautiful women with long hair bouncing
at their
shoulders. Men are shown admiring them, and the voiceover tells us, "This isn't
just about a look;
this is about how you feel."
         Similarly, a Head and Shoulder's ad set in a beauty salon shows a woman
with beautiful,
dandruff-free hair admiring herself in the mirror and thanking the man who
styled her hair. When
he says, "Looking good," she responds, "Thanks to you," [and Head and
Shoulders].
         Ann Jillian shows us her picture just after her baby was born. She
comments that in the photo
she still looks pregnant. But with Ultra Slim Fast she lost "50 pounds in six
months." Her final line
is, "I love what Ultra Slim Fast did for me. It can work for you, too."
         Loreal's Accentuous Mascara "accentuates the positive" with the "new
eye-opening look;"
Clarion cosmetics allow you to "care yourself beautiful;" and Estee Lauder's
Fruition gives you
beautiful skin because "underneath the skin you see is the skin you want."
         Although most of the physical enhancement ads were directed to women, a
young man who
uses Arrid Deodorant tells us, "It's okay to sweat when you work out, but it's
not okay to sweat when
you're close." His girlfriend says, "Cute or not, if he smells, it's over...I
trust Arrid." While the
product doesn't offer permanent enhancement, the daily use of the product
maintains his love life.
         The "I Am Me" Individual. One category of messages of individualism
ranks above all
others because these messages offer "individualism" as the supreme cultural
value.  While the
esteemed individual uses products to gain self-esteem and the physically
attractive individual uses
products to become a more physically attractive individual, in this category are
advertisers who
place "individualism" as the ultimate accomplishment.  Consumers have already
achieved "ultimate
individualism;" products and services become ways not of achieving individualism
but ways of
expressing the achievement of the ultimate state.
         A Sprint ad offers a clear example of ultimate individualism in which
Candice Bergen tells
the viewer that Sprint is the only company to provide local, long distance, and
cellular telephone
service, and "whoever said the world doesn't revolve around you obviously didn't
have Sprint." The
message is a supreme endorsement that the individual is more important than the
group.
         A Saturn ad shows a young woman who tells us
         Ever since I was a little girl, I knew I wanted to fly, and when I got
the opportunity to fly jets,
         I had to go for it. I wanted to buy a fun car that kinda gave everyone
else on the road an
         impression of my personality. And therefore, I was looking for
something fun and sporty and
         sleek and looks like it could possibly take off if given the proper
runway.
 
         Another example of individualism is seen in a McDonalds' ad with a
father feeding his baby
 
son in a high chair at home. He says
 
         Here's your din-din, big fella. (Daddy hands his son some baby food)
Here's Daddy's din-
         din. (A Big Mac)
 
         As the baby throws his spoon on the floor the voiceover says
         Once you get a look at those two all beef patties with special sauce,
lettuce, and cheese piled
         fresh and hot on that sesame seed bun, you've gotta have a Big Mac.
         While Daddy is picking up the baby's spoon from the floor, the baby is
reaching for Daddy's
Big Mac, and the jingle plays, "What you want is what you get, at McDonalds
today."
         In Western culture, which promotes assertiveness, and self-expression
and independence at
an early age, this ad is meant to be cute and humorous. However, in collectivist
cultures people
might not be amused when the baby asserts his will and wants Daddy's food.
Getting what you want
from the time that you are a baby is a concept that makes sense only in an
individualized culture.
         Stage 4. Following the analysis of main message strategies, the
following research question
was posed:
         RQ3 How does advertising use context to convey information regarding
individualism?
         Six types of contextual cues were identified.
         Often the background setting in which an ad operates is as important in
conveying examples
of the expression of individualism as is the main message. A total of 152 ads
(90%) provided
detailed contextual cues through the presentation of people in the ads. Thirteen
of the 169 ads (8%)
showed people in a minimal way, and only 4 ads (2%) were devoid of people and
setting.
         In order to express individualism, one must know many things including
the accepted gender
roles, the proper occupational roles, the social status of possessions, the care
and maintenance of
private property, the accepted ways to compete with others, the types of
education that make one
competitive in the job market, the acceptable leisure activities, the effective
communication
techniques, the nature of recognition, and the use of time and space in the
social structure. Six types
of contextual cues were identified.
         Observation 4.  In addition to main message strategies, advertising
make use of a
variety of contextual clues to sign and, thus, to reinforce individualism.
These include
gendered roles, race, age, education, recognition rituals and camera techniques.
         Several ads from this sample provide cues from the "real life"
scenarios that teach acceptable
behavior for consumers according to gender, race, ethnic group, age,
education/occupation, and the
nature of recognition.
         Gender. An ad for Prudential uses very little dialogue and relies on
visuals that trace the
birth of a baby girl until her graduation from college. Prudential combines
"peace of mind," "a piece
of knowledge," and "a piece of the rock," with images that show the mother
before the child is born,
the mother and child in the hospital, the child in kindergarten, and the grown
daughter at her college
graduation with Dad smiling proudly. While the ad also provides an example of a
main
individualism message, it provides contextual information by showing stereotyped
gender roles with
the mother figural only at birth and the father figural only in providing an
education. By showing
a daughter graduating from college rather than a son, the ad is accepting of
women receiving an
education, but the ad conveys that insurance is a man's domain. It is a man's
role to provide for the
family and to determine how to protect the family and their possessions. In
addition to this ad, three
other insurance ads for different companies -- Grange, Liberty Mutual, and
Nationwide -- showed
men only, a strong statement that the protection of life and property is
masculine behavior.
         Auto Zone ran a second ad in which a man on a camping trip tells his
buddies about his
experience at Auto Zone, including the special attention and consideration he
received. The
reenactment of his purchase experience omitted showing women as customers, like
the earlier ad,
which can supply the viewer with the idea that special attention and
consideration may be afforded
to men more than to women. On a more subtle level the viewer learns that camping
is an acceptable
recreational activity for men that allows them to spend time together away from
home and family
without disapproval -- not a message that would resonate using a female cast.
         Ford Explorer shows an interesting gendered ad in which a young,
attractive, romantic,
married couple are deciding what to do that day. She says, "I thought I'd like
to go buy some
flowers," and the viewer sees an image of flowers from a store loaded into the
back of their
Explorer. He says, "I know a place where we can go by some flowers," and the
viewer sees a field
of flowers away from the city. The ad continues with other plays on words -- she
wants to go to the
theater to catch a show and he agrees, thinking they could catch some fish.
Finally, she suggests a
candlelight dinner and visualizes dinner at a restaurant while his idea of a
candlelight dinner is over
an open fire out in the wilderness. The Ford Explorer makes all of this possible
because "the world's
too big to be left unexplored," and the final scene shows the couple cooking out
over an open fire
(his visualization). The ad very nicely shows different interests of men and
women, but interestingly
leaves the viewer thinking that his choice prevailed.
         Women play strong roles in these contextual situations, but they are
more often experts in
the realm of cleaning products and OTC drugs. For example, we are told that a
dentist recommends
baking soda and peroxide for cleaner teeth, but it is the dentist's wife who
discovered that Mentadent
has combined these ingredients in a product that tastes better and saves time.
         In an ad about a retired couple, a woman tells us that her husband
takes Advil when his
arthritis flares up so he can continue doing the things he loves, such as
working on furniture. While
the images are of the husband, the voiceover is that of the wife.
         With most OTC drugs and toothpaste, Mom is the expert. She averted
disaster by giving her
family Immodium AD when diarrhea struck the family on their trip to Hawaii; Mom
became Dr.
Mom by giving her family Robitussin; and another mother had to "act like a mom,
but think like a
dentist" by buying Crest Toothpaste for her daughter.
         In all fairness, men saved the day in two of the OTC drug ads, one in
which a man offers his
fiancee Tums for heartburn while eating dinner at his parents home, and another
in which the
husband offers Vicks 44 to his wife who is trying to take care of a small baby
while she is sick with
a cold. He takes care of the baby while she takes a dose of Vicks 44. Both of
these ads tell us
important social information -- how to handle a potentially embarrassing
situation with in-laws, and
how to share the child-rearing responsibilities, although both ads reinforce
other stereotypical
behavior. It was the mother who had cooked the meal that gave the future
daughter-in-law heartburn,
and the Vicks 44 ad upheld the traditional roles of men working and women caring
for the baby.
         Men appear to achieve credibility and expertise through professional
associations while
women achieve credibility and expertise through their role as wife and mother.
An ad for Effidac
used an older man as the spokesperson, and his appearance and personality fit
the stereotype of the
physician.
         In the realm of cleaning products women have no equals. It is the wife
who buys Carpet
Science so she and her husband don't have to keep moving the furniture around to
cover up the spots
on the carpet; it's the wife who knows that buying bargain brands costs more
than Tide in the long
run because you have to wash the clothes twice; it's Mom who knows to use Shout
Gel for clean
clothes when other detergents hide from dirt; and finally it's a woman who says,
"Most people are
experts at something they like; I'm an expert at something I hate -- grease."
         While women are experts in domestic affairs, men are shown as
incompetent in these areas,
as though domestic competence might be "unmanly." In a Clorox Toilet Cleaner ad
we see "Bad
John" turn into "Good John" in a word play in which John is a rather incompetent
looking guy who
prepares for the task of cleaning his john (toilet). Similarly, "Bob" can't
quite follow what his wife
is telling him about Branola, (she says it's like Granola spelled with a "B,"
like your name), and he
repeats everything back to her. These messages convey that men shouldn't be too
knowledgeable
about domestic affairs because it makes them less masculine.
         Race. While gendered behavior is figural in many ads, other aspects of
culture are visible
such as race. Aside from the grease expert who was black woman, only four other
ads showed blacks
as spokespersons or narrators. These included a little girl in the second grade
who learned to read
on a fifth grade level with Hooked on Phonics; an arthritis sufferer who tells
us about the Tylenol
Fast Cap for people who struggle to open medicine bottles; a black teen-age girl
who gets so
wrapped up in a phone conversation that she ignores the family dog out in the
rain (a South Central
Bell ad for call waiting so Mom and Dad can call and remind her to let the dog
in); and another
South Central Bell ad in which a hospital volunteer cheers up the sick children
by putting on a
puppet show with goods he acquired by using the yellow pages. A few blacks also
appeared among
the white customers of Wal-Mart, Hardees, KFC, Wendy's, and J.C. Penney's.
         Two different executions for the Mazda 626 LX provide an example of how
the same
product is positioned differently to blacks and whites. One of the Mazda 626 LX
ads showed a
young, white, attractive, professional looking woman experimenting with
earrings, lipstick, and
sunglasses while a voiceover says
         If you're looking for ways to make a statement, here's the American
made Mazda 626
         LX...It'll say a lot about your sense of value and style.
 
         In the other ad we see images of the workers who build the car along
with their families. We
first see a white family (a little girl with her mother) standing in the doorway
of a house, then a
black family in front of a house, and then two black men standing outdoors. The
voiceover says
         The Mazda 626 LX has an available V6 that just happens to be
affordable, courtesy of the
         folks around Flat Rock Michigan who built it. Just their way of
bringing power to the people.
         Right on.
 
         When targeting young, white, professional women the "make a statement"
execution is used,
but when targeting blacks the "affordable, made-in-Flat Rock, Michigan...power
to the people"
execution is used.
         Ethnic Groups. An ad that used different images of people who eat Lean
Cuisine showed
mostly separate images of people with one exception -- a group of men who
appeared to be Italian
were together, talking and laughing while playing bocce. They were the only
people interacting as
a group; the other black and white Americans were shown in separate reaction
shots, which
maintains an ethnic stereotype that Italian men can be more outwardly
affectionate and expressive
toward each other than blacks or whites.
         Age. Youth prevailed over older age in a Cheerios ad that initially
showed an older man who
expected Multi Grain Cheerios to be unappetizing and heavy. His adult son ate
the cereal with his
wife and child and found it "light" and tasty. The older man was finally
convinced, but he was
shown separately from the other family members. Lipton, on the other hand,
showed a family eating
dinner together with three generations represented and no young versus old
themes present.
         Older people in ads most often appeared in denture care product ads or
OTC drug ads, either
as the suffering patients or the doctor as spokesperson. Older people were
sometimes shown in an
activity, but not "at work" except for a black, hospital volunteer in the South
Central Bell ad.
         An older couple on an airplane for a Little Caesar's Pizza ad were
supposed to be humorous
because the woman couldn't put her lipstick on straight -- a portrayal that does
not flatter older
people.
         The image of older people as no longer employable and burdened by
various health problems
is unquestionably negative; however, the absence of older people in ads for
"fun" products such as
electronics, beautiful clothes, make-up, and cars may speak louder than their
presence in other ads.
The cosmetic ads for Estee Lauder's Fruition, Clarion Lipstick, Loreal's
Accentuous Mascara, and
Clarion's Vital Difference Moisturizing Make-Up all portray images of beautiful,
youthful women
and set certain standards of beauty that emphasize not only youth but thinness.
The one ad in the
sample for a weight loss product showed the before and after images of the
actress Ann Jillian for
Ultra Slim Fast. The consistent use of young, thin models with carefully applied
make-up and
youthful hair styles shows the viewer the look one needs in order to be
competitive on the basis of
attractiveness. According to advertising, older women do not possess this look
and are unable to
compete with younger women unless they look much younger than their years, which
is the main
appeal for products such as Estee Lauder's Fruition and Clarion's Vital
Difference make-up.
         Education and Occupation. An ITT ad that promoted degree programs which
take less time
than those of other institutions showed men almost exclusively. In other ads
that showed
occupational roles, men were shown in different jobs than women, and they were
more often shown
working outside the home than women. Some male occupations included a
professional
photographer, pharmacist, real estate agent, dentist, doctor, auto parts store
manager, hardware store
worker, beauty salon owner, hotel maintenance man, furniture store salesman,
game show host, mail
carrier, hospital volunteer, and insurance agent. Women were shown as an Army
officer, fast food
worker, nurse, teacher, hotel maid, mail clerk, and secretary. A Chevy truck ad
introduced a man
and woman who both designed sections of the interior.
         The Nature of Recognition. In order for a culture to emphasize the
individual's
achievement, attractiveness, youthfulness, etc., the culture must provide
opportunities for
recognition. Within Western culture, school graduations and other award
ceremonies are public
events that family and friends attend so that the honored person has an audience
to recognize the
accomplishments, just as beauty pageants draw an audience for those who excel in
physical
attractiveness.
         Several ads provided context for examples of recognition. An ad set at
a child's soccer game
showed a "father" admiring another father's Pontiac Grand Am and congratulating
the owner on
what a great deal he got on the car. A reversal of that message shows a man
competing in a game
show who "loses" the prize of the Pontiac Grand Prix by guessing the incorrect
answer to a question.
When asked to name the most affordable car with anti-lock brakes, he mistakenly
answers the
Taurus, and he fails to win both the prize and the recognition.
         In an ad that shows high recognition for the right car choice, Hyundai
shows what appears
to be a meeting of Alcoholics Anonymous. A man hesitantly walks on stage and
instead of
confessing he is an alcoholic, he confesses he is a Hyundai driver. Much to his
surprise the audience
members respond by applauding him and rising to their feet in his support.
         In order to be recognized, one must know what will be rewarded. These
examples of context
in advertising provide the viewer with a number of rules for acceptable behavior
roles that can serve
as guidelines for expressing individualism; however, by showing different levels
of education,
occupations, areas of expertise, and lifestyles for people on the basis of
gender, race or age,
advertising can present stereotypes that limit the range of choices to various
groups.
         Context through camera shot and technique.  Stores such as Sears and
Penney's serve both
collectivist and individualist needs, but their ads focused on the individual by
showing one or two
people at a time admiring their appearance or being admired by others. Fast-food
restaurant ads
showed individual reactions to the taste of the food with people typically
eating alone or in small
groups (family or small number of friends). The camera work often privileged a
first person point-
of-view so that an Arby's ad, for example, showed no full shots of people but
included a person's
hand picking up pieces of chicken, dipping it in sauce, and bringing the chicken
in closer to eat it.
The ad gives the viewer the feeling of being there and establishes
identification.
         Product demonstrations, testimonials, and slice of life ads typically
show a person that the
viewer can identify with in hopes of creating greater involvement with the
product. If several people
are shown, they often are presented one at a time.  For example, a Ripple Crisp
Cereal commercial
shows a father, mother, and daughter in separate reaction shots. By presenting
these three separately,
it helps legitimize the American practice of eating separately rather than
coordinating schedules to
eat breakfast together.
         Spokespersons often speak directly to viewers as though they are
talking to a single person.
A Tylenol ad with spokesperson Susan Sullivan in a pharmacy, and an Effidac ad
using an older,
non-celebrity man who "looks like" a doctor were two that did not contain main
messages of
individualism; however, the ads created personal involvement for the viewer by
showing a close-up
of the spokesperson talking directly to the viewer and using the word "you."
         Speaking directly to a single individual can not only personalize
products' claims for
efficacy, but when combined with an individualist message can deliver a greater
impact.
         For example, the close-up of the Auto Zone manager making direct eye
contact with the
viewer delivers greater impact to his message that "we think of you as the
boss," just as these
techniques enhance Candice Bergen's message that "the world revolves around
you."
         Finally, the Sega Game Gear ad draws the viewer in by using a voiceover
who says
         if you were color blind and had an IQ less than 12, then you wouldn't
care which portable
         [game] you had.
 
A dog is presented visually to the viewer when the voiceover delivers the lines,
giving the viewer
the message that if you were a dog, you wouldn't care which portable you had
(but since you're not,
you want the Sega game -- not the Nintendo, which is a monochromatic green).
 
                                                   Conclusions
         The original premise held that individualism is such a commonly
accepted value within
American culture that the real issue is not whether advertising carries messages
of individualism,
but rather how these messages are carried. Attempting to see how individualism
is transmitted
through advertising requires overcoming some of the difficulties in looking for
something nearly
invisible to members of the culture.
         To summarize briefly, a large number of products available to Americans
are solely for
individual use, yet an even greater number can serve both collectivist and
individualist needs. Only
one product was exclusively a collectivist product. Regardless of the nature of
the product, the
advertising appealed heavily to self-interests.
         Advertising uses a wide number of appeals to persuade the target
audience to buy products.
A total of 48% used direct individualist appeals in the advertising, and 90% of
the ads provided
contextual cues. Four main messages of individualism -- "The Esteemed
Individual," "The Efficient
Individual," "The Physically Attractive Individual," and "The I Am Me
Individual" were
identified.
         These finding raise two important questions: (1) how does the
expression of individualism
through advertising impact society, and (2) should the creators of advertising
modify their
messages?
         Addressing these questions first requires recognizing that the
preference of the value of
individualism over collectivism is not the central issue. The U.S. Constitution
is founded upon a
belief in individual rights and individual ownership of property; the value of
individualism is so
ingrained in the culture that it is unrealistic to suggest that messages should
reflect collectivism,
despite some negative effects of individualism. Main messages of individualism
cluster around four
value locations: self-esteem, efficiency, physical attractiveness, and "I Am
Me." Certainly, it is
difficult to argue that such messages are at odds with the culture. However, by
noting the absence
of other value locations such as "The Religious Individual," "The Giving
Individual," or 'The
Helping Individual," it becomes apparent that advertising reflects certain kinds
of individualism
more so than others.
         And while advertising may not reflect all forms and shapes of
individualism, it is also
pertinent to note that of the forms of individualism that are portrayed, the
value is pursued
differently by different groups according to gender, race, ethnic group, and
age, with certain groups
privileged over others in their attainment of individualism.
         The ability to gain recognition for individual accomplishments, e.g.
being the most attractive,
being the most successful on the job, or having possessions most admired by
others, requires a
knowledge of what the culture values and an ability to attain them. When
advertising portrays an
ideal image of men as educated providers who are very competitive on the job, in
charge of financial
decisions, they enjoy more freedom to pursue the goal of individual expression
than other groups,
particularly through occupations. The sheer number of ads for products enhancing
physical
attractiveness for women conveys that women are "judged" on the basis of
appearance more than
men, and that their appearance may be of greater importance than their
contribution to the work
force. This type of stereotyping can not only hurt women who enter the work
force, it can also
pressure men into a narrow range of choices that denies them total individual
expression. The
limited range of behavior for blacks, ethnic groups, and older people create
similar obstacles in their
expression of individualism.
         The second question asks whether messages should be created differently
and addresses the
responsibility of the advertising industry. Since the creators of ads are
focused on those specific ads
they are producing at a given time, they may easily lose sight of the total
impact of advertising. In
simple terms, they may not see the forrest for the trees. Often being able to
see what was once
invisible is enough to change one's perspective and modify behavior. This study
does not ask for
revolutionary changes in the advertising messages; it merely asks that
advertisers become more self-
conscious in the ways they are depicting individualism so that what we value as
a culture is equally
accessible to everyone without restricting the availability of individualism.
 
                                                REFERENCES
 
Aries, P. (1981), The Hour of Our Death, (H. Weaver, Trans.), New York: Alfred
A. Knopf.
 
Baumeister, Roy F. (1985), "How the Self Became a Problem: A Psychological
Review of
         Historical Research," Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 52
(1), 163-176.
 
Bellah, Robert N., Richard Madsen, William M. Sullivan, Ann Swidler, and Steven
M. Tipton
         (1985), Habits of the Heart, Individualism and Commitment in American
Life, Berkeley:
         University of California Press.
 
Frith, Katherine T., and David Wesson (1991), "A Comparison of Cultural Values
in British and
         American Print Advertising: A Study of Magazines," Journalism
Quarterly, 68 (1/2)
         Spring/Summer, 216-223.
 
Gross, Barbara L., and Jagdish. N. Sheth (1989), "Time-oriented Advertising: A
Content Analysis
         of United States Magazine Advertising, 1890-1988," Journal of
Marketing, 53, 76-83.
 
Hall, Edward T. (1959), The Silent Language, New York: Doubleday.
 
Hofstede, Geertz  (1984), Culture's Consequences: International Differences in
Work-Related
         Values, Beverly Hills: Sage.
 
Hofstede, Geertz (1991), Cultures and Organizations -- Software of the Mind.
London: McGraw Hill
         Book Company.
 
Holbrook, Morris B. (1987), "Mirror, Mirror, on the Wall, What's Unfair in the
Reflections on
         Advertising?" Journal of Marketing, 51, 95-103.
 
Kluckhohn, Clyde (1951), "Values and Value Orientations in the Theory of
Action," in T. Parsons
         & E. A. Shils (Eds.), Toward a General Theory of Action, Cambridge:
Harvard University
         Press.
 
Kluckhohn, Florence R., and Fred L. Strodbeck (1961), Variations in Value
Orientations. Evanston,
         Ill: Row, Peterson and Company.
 
Lodge, George C. (1975), The New American Ideology, New York: Alfred A. Knopf.
 
MacIntyre, A. (1981), After Virtue, Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame
Press.
 
Maslow, Abraham H. (1970) Motivation and Personality, 2nd edition, New York:
Harper & Row.
 
Mandese, Joe (1993),"'Home Improvement' Wins $ Race," Advertising Age, September
6 (3, 26).
 
Miller, David L. (1967), Individualism: Personal Achievement and the Open
Society, Austin:
         University of Texas Press.
 
Moriarty, Sandra E. (1991), Creative Advertising Theory and Practice, 2nd.
Edition, Englewood
         Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice Hall.
 
Nelson, Roy P. (1989), The Design of Advertising, Dubuque, Iowa: William C.
Brown.
 
Nisbet, R. (1973), The Social Philosophers: Community and Conflict in Western
Thought,
         New York: Crowell.
 
Ogilvy, David (1985), Ogilvy on Advertising, New York: Vintage Books.
 
Pollay, Richard W. (1983), "Measuring the Cultural Values Manifest in
advertising," Current Issues
         and Research in Advertising, 1, 71-92.
 
Pollay, Richard W. (1986), "The Distorted Mirror: Reflections on the Unintended
Consequences of
         Advertising," Journal of Marketing, 50, 18-36.
 
Russell, J. Thomas and W. Ronald Lane (1993), Kleppner's Advertising Procedure,
12th Edition,
         Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice Hall.
 
Solomon, Michael R., and Lawrence Greenberg (1993), "Setting the Stage:
Collective Selection in
         the Stylistic Context of the Commercials," Journal of Advertising,
22(1), 11-23.
 
Triandis, Harry C. (1985) "Collectivism vs. Individualism: A Reconceptualization
of a Basic
         Concept in Cross-Cultural Psychology" in C. Gabley & G. K. Verma (Eds.)
Personality,
         Cognition and Values: Cross-Cultural Perspectives of Childhood and
Adolescence, London:
         Macmillan, pp. 57-89.
 
Triandis, Harry C. (1989) "The Self and Social Behavior in Differing Cultural
Contexts,"
         Psychological Review, 96(3), 506-520
 
Trompenaars, Fons (1993) Ride the Waves of Culture, Boston: The Economist Books.
 
Zinkhan, George M., Jae W. Hong, and Robert Lawson (1990), "Achievement and
Affiliation
         Motivation," Journal of Business Research, 20, 135-144.
 
Zinkhan, George M., and A. Shermohamad (1986), "Is Other-directedness on the
Increase? An
         Empirical Test of Riesman's Theory of Social Character,"Journal of
Consumer Research, 13,
         127-130.
 
                                                      APPENDIX A
                        Hofstede's Characteristics of Individualistic Cultures
 
 
Family Life
 
1. Children grow up in nuclear families
2. Children learn to spend time alone unlike collectivist children who are
almost never alone
3. Child-rearing sets independence as a goal
4. Speaking one's mind is a virtue and is characteristic of a sincere and honest
person
5. Confrontation is believed to lead to a higher truth
6. Adults should have learned to take direct feedback constructively
7. Coping with conflict is a normal part of living
8. Children are expected and encouraged to develop opinions of their own, and
children who never
         voice opinions is thought to have a weak character
9. Children are encouraged to take small jobs in order to earn pocket-money of
their own, which
         they alone can decide how to spend
10. There are a lack of both financial and ritual obligations to the family.
Baptisms, marriages, and
         funerals are not as compulsory as in collectivist cultures
11. Verbal communication (social conversations) are compulsory. Silence is
considered abnormal.
12. Communication is explicit and not self-evident (low context communication)
13. Self-respect is the closest counterpart to the collectivistic concept of
face
14. Self-respect is defined from the point of view of the individual -- not the
social environment
15. Children break with parents or keep relationships to a minimum
16. People look after themselves and immediate family
 
 
Education
 
 
1. Children are encouraged to speak up in class and express their own opinion
without consulting
         the group or working in groups
2. Two-way communication between teacher and student is encouraged
3. Students expect to be treated impartially
4. Students from different ethnic groups mix more freely and do not expect
preferential treatment
5. Teachers who favored same ethnic background students would be considered
guilty of nepotism
         and immoral behavior
6. Students form groups on an ad hoc basis according to the task or to
particular friendships and
         skills
7. The purpose of education is independence
8. Learning creates a positive attitude toward new situations
9. People must learn to cope with new, unknown, unforseen situations that will
arise through life
10. Diplomas improve the holder's economic worth but also his or her
self-respect because it
         provides a sense of achievement
Work
 
1. Work should be organized so self-interest and employer's interest coincide
2. Workers are economic men -- people with a combination of economic and
psychological needs
3. Family relationships at work are considered undesirable because they may lead
to nepotism or
         conflict of interest.
4. The relationship between employer and employee is primarily conceived as a
business transaction
         between buyers and sellers on a labor market
5. Poor performance on the part of the employee or a better pay offer from
another employer are
         legitimate and socially accepted reasons for terminating a work
relationship.
6. Management of individuals is valued.
7. Subordinates can be moved around individually
8. Bonuses are given according to individual performance
9. Formal appraisal interview communicate "bad news" directly to employees
without going through
         subtle, face-saving tactics
10. Universalism (treating everybody alike) is more ethical than particularism
(treating one's friends
         better than others)
11. The task prevails over personal relationships, and such things as trust are
not required to be
         developed prior to conducting business
12. Important goals on the job are:
         1. Personal time -- having a job which leaves you sufficient time for
your personal or family
         life
         2. Freedom -- having considerable freedom to adopt your own approach to
the job
         3. Challenge -- having challenging work to do -- work from which you
can achieve a
         personal sense of accomplishment.
 
Ideas and Philosophy
 
1. Individual interest prevail over collective interests
2. Everyone has a right to privacy
3. Laws and rights are supposed to be the same for all
4. Economy is based on individual interests
5. Individualistic cultures are wealthier--higher GNP
6. Restrained role of government in the economic system
7. Political power is exercised by voters
8. Freedom of press rather than state control
9. Ideologies of individual freedom prevail over ideologies of equality
10. Self-actualization by every individual is the ultimate goal
11. According to Maslow's hierarchy, realizing to the fullest possible extent
the creative potential
         present within the individual is the supreme motivation.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------
(Hofstede 1991, pp. 49-78)