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Person Perception in the U.S. Ban on Gays in the Military:
A Content Analysis of News Photographs in The Advocate and Newsweek
Nicole Elise Smith,
Roy H. Park Fellow Doctoral Student
School of Journalism and Mass Communication
University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill
Campus Box #3365
Chapel Hill, North Carolina
27599-3365
cell: (919) 360-2030
fax: (919) 962-0620
e-mail: [log in to unmask]
A research manuscript submitted to the
Gay, Lesbian, Bisexual, Transgender Interest Group,
2006 AEJMC Convention
April 1, 2006
Person Perception in the U.S. Ban on Gays in the Military:
A Content Analysis of News Photographs in The Advocate and Newsweek
Abstract
When considering media messages, a vital area of inquiry is
media images, specifically news photographs. Based on the theory of
person perception, this study compares images of gay men and lesbians
within articles about the U.S. ban on gays in the military in the
leading gay newsmagazine, The Advocate, with images in a leading
mainstream newsmagazine, Newsweek. Findings indicate that Newsweek
did not present images of gay men and lesbians as favorably as did
The Advocate.
Person Perception in the U.S. Ban on Gays in the Military:
A Content Analysis of News Photographs in The Advocate and Newsweek
The mass media represent a "window to the world," (Lippmann,
1922) and therefore, media messages contribute to our construction of
"social reality" (de Jong, 2006). Although the media are not the sole
contributor to social reality, research has shown that people are
affected by media messages (de Jong; Lester & Ross, 2003). As such, a
substantial body of research has focused on news media coverage and
entertainment media portrayals of minority groups. Both are vital
areas for researchers to pursue, as previous research has continually
indicated that the media, both news and entertainment, have
considerable influence on the public's positive and negative
stereotypes of minority groups, including those of gay men and
lesbians (Greenberg & Brand, 1994; Gross, 2001; Lester & Ross, 2003).
When considering media messages and public influence, a vital
area of inquiry is visual media images, specifically news
photographs. Although the printed word still maintains a powerful
position in our news media—and unarguably has the ability to
effectively communicate information to an audience—scholars are
beginning to show that the visual is also a dominant form of
communication (Mitchell, 1994; Newton, 2001). Scholarly research has
shown that visual images are powerful, and, in fact, research has
shown that images can invoke a more powerful emotional response than
can words alone (Goldberg, 1991; Lester, 1991; Perlmutter, 1999).
Given that images have the ability to produce powerful emotional
responses in viewers, members of the media should show particular
concern when including images. Harris and Lester (2001) have
identified four areas of concern for visual communication and ethics:
the negative use of victims of violence, the invasion of privacy,
news photography manipulation, and pictorial stereotypes.
Pictorial stereotypes in the media can help to perpetuate
negative social stereotypes of minority groups (Lester, 2000). Harris
and Lester (2001) provide common examples1 of media stereotypes:
"African Americans are criminals. Latinos are gang members. Native
Americans are alcoholics. Wheelchair-dependent individuals are
helpless. Gays are effeminate. Lesbians wear their hair short. Older
adults need constant care" (p. 54). The problem of pictorial
stereotypes—and the power of the media to create them—cannot be
underestimated. As Alwood (1996), a historical scholar of gays and
lesbians in the media, said, "The capacity of the news media to
create and perpetuate prejudice is one of the most unsettling and
frightening aspects of American journalism" (p. 6). Like all minority
groups, gay men and lesbians are subject to societal stereotypes.
In regard to pictorial stereotypes, the National Press
Photographers Association Code of Ethics states: "Be complete and
provide context when photographing or recording subjects. Avoid
stereotyping individuals and groups. Recognize and work to avoid
presenting one's own biases in the work" (Section 2, Paragraph 3).
Based on the understanding of this principle of the NPPA Code, media
producers have the ethical responsibility to ensure that they are
taking and including images of minority groups that are
representative and do not simply perpetuate negative societal
stereotypes. Lester (2000) writes that negative societal stereotypes
could be more quickly overcome "if the images of culturally diverse
groups, including gays and lesbians, show ordinary people who have
ordinary needs, fears, and hopes and lead ordinary lives" (p. 92).
As previously mentioned, images can provoke a powerful
emotional response in viewers. In addition, the media have an ethical
responsibility to include representative images rather than
perpetuate negative stereotypes. Given the emotional power of the
image and the ethical responsibility of media producers, the purpose
of the current research is to study photographs of gay men and
lesbians in newsmagazines to better understand how gay men and
lesbians are being represented. More specifically, the study will
compare images of gay men and lesbians within articles about the U.S.
ban on gays in the military in the leading gay newsmagazine, The
Advocate, with images in a leading mainstream newsmagazine, Newsweek.
The content analysis of photographs will be guided by the theory of
person perception. Although a content analysis cannot determine the
effects of media content, the current research aims to understand the
differences in media content as a foundation for future media effects
research. As such, the current research is important to pursue given
the power of the visual image and the findings of previous research
of media effects that have shown that the media have considerable
influence on the public's positive and negative stereotypes of
minority groups, including those of gay men and lesbians.
Literature Review
Theoretical Foundation
The theory of person perception, attributed to Schneider,
Hastorf, and Ellsworth (1979), is a visual communication theory that
examines photographs of people in regard to behavior, context, and
perspective. According to Moriarty and Garramone (1986), photographs
provide information about their subjects "through 'stop-action'
slices of behavior such as facial expression and bodily postures" (p.
729). Media audiences "can and do" draw conclusions from photographs
(Schneider, Hastorf, & Ellsworth, p. 17). In addition, nonverbal
behaviors, as captured through photographs, can be interpreted as
either positive or negative by a viewer (Clore, Wiggins, & Itkin,
1975). Once behavior is identified by a viewer, the behavior within a
certain context is considered (Schneider, Hastorf, & Ellsworth).
Context includes location, surroundings, and peers. Behavior and
context are closely related. As such, the viewer's perception of
acceptability of behavior is connected to context (Schneider,
Hastorf, & Ellsworth). For example, if a person was smiling or
laughing, but the setting was a funeral, the physical behavior would
then be deemed unacceptable.
The final factor under consideration is perspective. Once a
photograph is taken, the media then present the photo within a
certain perspective. Photographic considerations, such as angle,
lighting, size, and page position add to the viewer's perception of
the photographic content (Taylor & Fiske, 1975). Based on these
factors, the theory of person perception predicts that humans—as
processors of information—make "snap judgments" of others based on
visual considerations, such as behavior, context, and perspective
(Schneider, Hastorf, & Ellsworth, 1979, p. 20). Although these "snap
judgments" are not necessarily correct or complete, they are a
natural result of the perception process (Schneider, Hastorf, & Ellsworth).
Using the theory of person perception, Sandra Moriarty
conducted research in the area of photographs and bias in the
presidential elections in the 1980s. Her work presents a large body
of evidence showing the importance of visuals in establishing voter
preferences (Moriarty & Garramone, 1986; Moriarty & Popovich, 1991).
To illustrate, Moriarty and Popovich write, "Visuals are more than
decoration; they perform important roles in communication such as
conveying realism, credibility, and attitudes" (p. 372). In the 1984
presidential election in a study of Time, Newsweek, and U.S. News &
World Report, Moriarty and Garramone found evidence that Reagan was
presented more favorably than Mondale and that the differences
extended across all three newsmagazines. However, in a follow-up
study of the 1998 presidential election, Moriarty and Popovich found
evidence that the newsmagazines attempted to provide more balanced
visual coverage. Nonetheless, Bush received more visual coverage, and
he was depicted as "more cheerful and confident than Dukakis"
(Moriarty & Popovich, p. 379). Visuals of presidential candidates
have also been studied in daily newspapers. In a study of the 1996
presidential election, Waldman and Devitt (1998) examined photographs
of Clinton and Dole in five leading newspapers. The study found that
Clinton received slightly more favorable pictorial treatment;
however, the week-by-week analysis found that the favorability of the
two candidates rose and fell together.
Although the current study is not about visual images of
presidential candidates, the purpose in recounting these studies is
to illustrate how the theory of person perception has been applied in
context. This study intends to apply the theory of person perception
to studying photographs of gays and lesbians in newsmagazines.
News Media Coverage of Gay Men and Lesbians
Fejes and Petrich (1993) cite the vital role of the news media
in helping to form individual as well as community identity for gays
and lesbians. Gays and lesbians begin to develop their identity at an
early age; however, unlike other minority groups, traditionally, gays
and lesbians have had "little or no help in understanding or defining
themselves as gay or lesbian" (Fejes & Petrich, p. 396). As such,
media messages function as an important form of identity for gay men
and lesbians (Fejes & Petrich). Gross (2001) argued that media images
influence the way gay men and lesbians perceive themselves, how they
evaluate their societal position, and how they interact in society.
In addition, media messages also have a large impact on the societal
stereotypes of minority groups, including those of gay men and
lesbians (Lester, 2000).
Research has already begun to understand news media portrayals
of gay men and lesbians and the effect of those portrayals.2 Prior to
the 1940s, gay men and lesbians were essentially invisible in the
news media (Alwood, 1996). However, a 1947 issue of Newsweek magazine
drew attention to the issue of gays in the military (Gibson, 2006).
The article cited the discharge of between 3,000 and 4,000 gay men
during World War II based on the psychiatric understanding that gays
were mentally unfit for military service (Gibson). According to
Gibson, during this time the increased news coverage of gay men and
lesbians was "not necessarily a positive thing" (p. 197). During the
1950s the news media continued to portray gay men and lesbians as
"sex perverts" and "deviants," which research has shown may have had
a profound impact on the way homosexuality was perceived and how
homosexuals were treated during this time (de Jong, 2006; Fejes &
Petrick, 1993). In this time of "McCarthyism," which was based on
Sen. Joseph McCarthy's desire to remove Communists from the federal
government and based on the notion of gay men and lesbians as
"deviants," many gays and lesbians were systematically removed from
governmental positions (de Jong).
This notion of gay men and lesbians continued into the 1960s.
In 1963, The New York Times ran a cover story about gays and
lesbians, calling them "deviates" who were destined for a "life of
promiscuity" (Alwood, 1996). This was the first cover story the Times
ran about gays and lesbians. In 1967, the national magazine Look ran
a feature article titled "The Sad 'Gay' Life" (Alwood). The article
described homosexuals as leading a life that was a "distorted mirror
image of heterosexual life" (Alwood, p. 6). It wasn't until the
summer of 1969 that this image of gays and lesbians began to change.
On June 28, 1969, the Stonewall Inn, a gay bar in New York City, was
raided by the police. Although police raids were not uncommon, on
this particular night, the patrons fought back, sparking a riot.
Today, known as the "emblematic event of the gay rights movement,"
the Stonewall Riot was not heavily covered by the media (Watson,
2006, p. 73). However, the Stonewall Riot "made visible a new
movement, one expressing a demand for equal rights for homosexuals"
(Conroy, 2006, p. 137).
In the 1970s, the notion of gay men and lesbians as "deviants"
began to change for the better (Gibson, 2006). In fact, issues of
national magazines like Time and Look included articles that examined
homosexuality in a "less condemnatory way" (Fejes & Petrick, 1993).
This change was, in part, triggered by the 1973 decision by the
American Psychiatric Association to remove homosexuality from its
list of psychiatric disorders. And, in 1975, for the first time ever,
an openly gay man was pictured on the cover of Time magazine (Gibson,
2006). The cover story was about the struggle for gay rights and
featured Sgt. Leonard Matlovich, a highly decorated Vietnam veteran
who had been discharged after he openly acknowledged his
homosexuality. In addition, in 1978, NBC ran a primetime feature
story about Sgt. Matlovich and the struggle for gay rights (Gibson,
2006). Coverage like this helped to legitimatize the gay rights
struggle in the news media.
It was also during this time that the gay press began to
emerge. According to one statistic, by 1976 there were 262 gay or
lesbian U.S. periodicals (Corzine, 1977). These publications enabled
gays and lesbians to speak for their own concerns, thereby providing
outlets for "a growing sense of homosexual identity and community"
(Fejes & Petrick, 1993, p. 403). In addition, in the mid-1970s some
mainstream news organizations, including Time, CBS, and NBC, adopted
policies prohibiting discrimination based on sexual orientation
(Fejes & Petrick). However, these policies did little to change the
"oppressive atmosphere" as most reporters were not familiar, and
certainly not comfortable, reporting on gay men and lesbians (Fejes &
Petrick). As such, many news outlets during this time were hesitant
to frame homosexual rights in the same way that ethnic/racial
minority rights were framed; this led to the common approach of
framing homosexuality as a "lifestyle" (Fejes & Petrick).
During the early 1980s, the media paid little attention to the
emerging virus now known as AIDS (Bell, 2006). According to Bell,
"Mainstream media took its cues from the political leadership, whose
first response was an attempt to regulate gay men's sexual behaviors
to contain the disease" (p. 99). Moreover, the mainstream media
initially framed AIDS as "a disease reflecting gay men's 'promiscuous
and abnormal' sexual behavior and lifestyle" (Fejes & Petrick, 1993,
p. 403). Although the mainstream media largely ignored the new
epidemic, "the gay press played a pivotal role in publicizing the
devastating effects of the disease on the community" (Bell, p. 99).
When covered in the mainstream media, AIDS was framed as an "us
versus them" epidemic (Bell; Treichler, 1999). According to Bell,
this media dichotomy of AIDS "provided a false sense of security to
the general population and reinforced the 'badness' of homosexuality"
(p. 100).
It really was not until the 1990s that the news media began to
provide more accurate descriptions and representations of gay men and
lesbians. One reason for the change in framing was, in part, due to
the emergence of openly gay and lesbian journalists (Alwood, 1996).
In addition, the powerful elites of journalism, the editors and
publishers, were in transition from the "old guard" to a more
"open-minded generation" (Alwood, p. 14). In 1993, the media coverage
of the third National March on Washington for Gay and Lesbian Rights
took journalism to a new level of reporting on gay men and lesbians.
The march, which took place on April 25, 1993, triggered
"unprecedented" media coverage of gays and lesbians and gay rights
(Alwood, p. 310). One research study showed that on the day after the
march, 156 U.S. newspapers covered the story, with most featuring it
on the front page (Alwood).
Rather than attempting to provide a complete history of the
news coverage of gay men and lesbians in the mass media, this section
of the literature review attempted to provide a brief overview of the
topic in order to orient the reader and to provide a foundation for
the importance of the current study.3 The literature review will now
turn to the more specific topic of study: the U.S. ban on gays in the
military.
The U.S. Ban on Gays in the Military
The U.S. ban on gays in the military has been one of the
central equality issues for gay men and lesbians (Schilts, 1993).4
Although there was not official military law against gays in the
military until WWI, soldiers accused of sodomy, which was illegal at
the time, were often discharged from the military for "conduct
unbecoming" (Gibson, 2006). As already discussed, until 1973, the
American Psychiatric Association considered homosexuality a
psychological disorder. Thus, during WWII when soldiers began to
receive psychiatric screenings, the military deemed soldiers who
acknowledged being gay as mentally unfit for military service. As
such, the military shifted its focus from homosexual acts to the
elimination of homosexual soldiers (Gibson, 2006).
Gay men and lesbians continued to be eliminated from the
military during the McCarthy era of the 1950s and through the 1960s.
In the 1970s, however, the gay rights movement was gaining strength
and a highly publicized case—that of Sgt. Matlovich—brought national
attention to the issue. In 1978 the U.S. Court of Appeals ruled that
the dismissal of Matlovich for being homosexual was illegal. Similar
court cases also emerged during this time, although most of them were
unsuccessful. Despite these court challenges, in 1982 the Department
of Defense policy further restated it policy, arguing that
"homosexuality was incompatible with military service" (Gibson, 2006,
p. 194).
In 1992 the issue of the U.S. ban on gays in the military
received the national spotlight due to a number of factors. In June
of 1992, Col. Margarethe Cammermeyer, a highly decorated soldier, was
discharged after openly admitting that she was gay. A high-profile
court case ensued, and in June in 1994, a Federal District Court
ruled that she be reinstated. Also in 1992, Seaman Allen Schindler
was brutally murdered by fellow sailors because he was gay. This
tragedy prompted the U.S. Congress to introduce legislation to
overturn the ban on gays in the military.
During the 1992 presidential campaign, then candidate Bill
Clinton made a campaign promise to remove the U.S. ban on gays in the
military. Following his election, he announced his plans to introduce
an executive order removing the ban; the announcement was met with
strong opposition from the Joint Chiefs of Staff. A tentative
agreement was reached at the end of January 1993, in which President
Clinton agreed to wait six months to issue the executive order to
give Congress time to consider the matter. On July 9, 1993 Clinton
announced the new "Don't Ask, Don't Tell" policy, which stated that
military personnel could not be questioned about their sexual
orientation; however, openly gay personnel or those who acknowledged
being gay could still be removed from service. Many supporters of gay
and lesbian rights viewed this as a setback rather than a step
forward (Gibson, 2006). Since the policy was implemented, the number
of military discharges of homosexuals has increased more than 80
percent ("Gays in the Military," 2000). In 1998, 1,149 cases were
reported as compared to 597 in 1994 ("Gays in the Military").
Although the Constitutionality of the ban has been questioned,
higher courts have upheld it. Although the policy wasn't heavily
debated in the media the late 1990s, coverage did occur following gay
bashings on military bases or court rulings. The topic resurfaced
following September 11 and the ensuing War with Iraq. Although the
U.S military has a long history of excluding gays from the military,
gay men and lesbians are allowed to serve during times of extreme
personnel shortages. The "stop/loss" policy slows the discharge of
military personnel in order to ensure that the military has
sufficient manpower for military operations (Gibson, 2006). However,
the official policy of "Don't Ask, Don't Tell" is still in operation today.
The intention of this portion of the literature review was to
establish the topic of the U.S. ban on gays in the military as a
central issue facing the equal rights of gay men and lesbians. Based
on the importance and long history of the topic, it is worthy of
further study.
Summary and Research Question
The literature review illustrated the theory of person
perception and showed how it has been used in context to study visual
images. The intent of the current study is to understand if there is
a difference in images of gay men and lesbians in articles about the
U.S. ban on gays in the military in gay versus mainstream
newsmagazines. As was also seen in the literature review, the news
media portrayal of gay men and lesbians has changed dramatically
through the decades. However, much of the work in this area has
examined the printed word. This study intends to expand the research
by specifically examining visual images. Again, this study is
important to pursue given that previous research has shown the
emotional power of visual images. As such, this study can provide a
foundation for future media effects research. The research question
for this study is: Is there a quantitative difference, in terms of
the theory of person perception, in the photographs of gay men and
lesbians within articles about the U.S. ban on gays in the military
in the leading gay newsmagazine (The Advocate) versus a leading
mainstream newsmagazine (Newsweek)?
Method
The analysis period began in January 19925 and ended in December
2005. The year 1992 was selected as the beginning year for analysis
because, as seen in the literature review, the issue of gays in the
military peaked as a central news focus that year. The Advocate and
Newsweek magazines were the media sources for the study.6 The
Advocate is a bi-weekly publication with a circulation of nearly
100,000 (Bacon's Magazine Directory, 2003). The magazine is described
as having national news and feature content specifically edited for
gay men and lesbians (Bacon's Magazine Directory). Newsweek, a
weekly publication, is commonly regarded as one of the leading weekly
newsmagazines. It has a circulation of more than three million and is
described as including reports and analysis of current events and
news (Bacon's Magazine Directory). Therefore, both magazines can be
seen as legitimate sources of news. The newsmagazine is also worth
examining in detail as it is a unique mass medium in that it operates
on a more relaxed time frame than other print media. A more flexible
deadline provides newsmagazines the luxury of examining the week's
events and rearranging those events into neatly packaged news.
Moreover, newsmagazines generally include a large numbers of
photographs with their news stories.
Using the Lexis-Nexis Database, a guided news search in
Newsweek was conducted. Within the context of a paragraph, the search
terms of "gay and military" were used. As The Advocate is not
available to search on Lexis-Nexis, the relevant articles were
selected through a physical scan of the table of content of each
issue within the sampling time frame. All articles related to "gay
and military" were selected for inclusion. Once the relevant articles
were located, all accompanying photographs were analyzed. The unit of
analysis was an individual photograph. Based on these considerations,
the study analyzed a census of data. A census sample was used instead
of a random sample because the researcher wanted to provide a
complete representation of images. Additionally, although the U.S.
ban on gays in the news military has received much news coverage,
there were not enough photos to generate a representative random sample.
For the photograph to be included in the sample, the dominant
person in the photo had to be clearly identified in either the
caption or the article text as gay or lesbian. As such, there were
photographs within articles about the U.S. ban on gays in the
military that were not included in the study. For example, a number
of photographs of former President Clinton were included in the
articles about the U.S. ban on gays in the military; however, none of
these photos were included because he was not identified as gay in
any captions or article text. Further, in each photo only the
dominant person was analyzed. The dominant person was determined to
be the person who was the central focus of the photograph. If two
people were determined to be equally dominant, a separate code sheet
was tabulated for each dominant person in the photograph.
Data for the study were collected through quantitative coding
as based on the theory of person perception. The coding protocol was
developed based on previous studies using the theory of person
perception. For this study, the categories of behavior, context, and
perspective were each coded as based on three attributes. Each
attribute was scored on a three-point system as seen in Appendix 1.
Therefore, the maximum score for each of the three primary categories
could be 9, while the minimum score could be 3. A total score for
each photograph was obtained by summing the three category scores. As
such, the total score for a photograph could range from 9 to 27. A
higher score represents a stronger, more dominant photo in terms of
person perception theory. To compare the photos from The Advocate and
Newsweek, mean scores were computed for each of the three analysis
categories and for the total score. The mean scores were then
compared using an Independent Samples T-Test.
The researcher served as the primary coder for the study;
however, a second coder was used to determine intercoder reliability.
The researcher conducted an initial and follow-up training session
with the second coder. Ten percent of the sample was randomly
selected to test for intercoder reliability. Using Scott's pi,
perfect reliability of 1 was found for 33% of the variables, while
reliability between .5 and .822 was found for 67% of the variables.
Findings
During the period of analysis in The Advocate, 68 photographs
depicting gay men and lesbians within the context of articles
relating to the U.S. ban on gays in the military were found. Nineteen
of those photos were black and white, while the other 49 were color
photographs. During the period of analysis in Newsweek, 20
photographs depicting gay men and lesbians within the context of
articles relating to the U.S. ban on gays in the military were found.
All 20 of these photos were in color.
In regard to the number of photos per year in The Advocate,
the range was from zero to 18, which can be seen in Figure 1. As seen
in the figure, the largest number of photos per year was during the
years 1992 through 1994. The figure also shows that photographic
coverage dropped off in the mid-90s, with coverage returning in the
late 1990s through the present.7
Figure 1. Number of photos of gay men and lesbians per year in articles
about the U.S. ban on gays in the military in The Advocate
In Newsweek, the range of photos per year was from zero to 13,
which can be seen in Figure 2. Like the data from The Advocate,
photographic coverage in Newsweek peaked in 1993 with 13 photographs.
However, unlike in The Advocate, in no other year were there more
than two photographs. In addition, in nine years of Newsweek coverage
of the U.S. ban on gays in the military, there was no photographic
presence of identifiable gay men and lesbians.
Figure 2. Number of photos of gay men and lesbians per year in articles
about the U.S. ban on gays in the military in Newsweek
The data will next examine mean scores for each category of
analysis (behavior, context, perspective) as well as for the total
score for each photograph. As previously stated, the score for each
category of analysis could range from a low of 3 to a high of 9. The
total score could range from a low of 9 to a high of 27. The mean
score for each category of analysis as well as the mean for the total
scores are seen in Table 1 for each magazine.
Table 1. Photographic coverage of the U.S. ban on gays in the military
Behavior
Context
Perspective
Total
The Advocate
n=68
6.06
5.40
6.40a
17.85
Newsweek
n=20
6.00
5.55
5.05b
17.10
F-Value
2.108
.242
17.669*
1.320
Note: Means with different superscripts are significantly different.
* p < .001 by independent-samples t-test.
As seen in the table, for The Advocate, the category of
perspective had the highest mean score, while context received the
lowest mean score. Interestingly, in Newsweek, the category of
perspective received the lowest mean score, while behavior received
the highest mean score. In comparing magazines, statistical
significance was found only in the category of perspective (F =
17.669, df = 86, p < .001). Statistical significance was not found in
comparing the means of the other two categories or the mean total score.
Discussion
Research has shown that a person's perception of social
reality is largely affected by media messages (Lippmann, 1922; de
Jong, 2006; Lester & Ross, 2003). In addition, previous research has
continually indicated that both the news and entertainment media have
considerable influence on the public's positive and negative
stereotypes of minority groups, including those of gay men and
lesbians (Greenberg & Brand, 1994; Gross, 2001; Lester & Ross, 2003).
Further, research has also shown that visual images can invoke a more
powerful emotional response than can words alone (Goldberg, 1991;
Lester, 1991; Perlmutter, 1999). Based on these considerations,
pictorial stereotypes in the media can help to perpetuate negative
social stereotypes of minority groups (Lester, 2000). As such, this
research argues that the media have an ethical responsibility to
include representative images rather than perpetuate negative
stereotypes. This research asked: Is there a quantitative difference,
in terms of the theory of person perception, in the photographs of
gay men and lesbians within articles about the U.S. ban on gays in
the military in the leading gay newsmagazine (The Advocate) versus a
leading mainstream newsmagazine (Newsweek)?
Based on the methodological selection criteria, data were
collected on 88 photographs (68 from Newsweek and 20 from The
Advocate) of gay men and lesbians within articles about the U.S. ban
on gays in the military. Based on this numerical break down, it is
clear that The Advocate contained a far greater number of photographs
of gay men and lesbians than did Newsweek. Although it is not
surprising that The Advocate contained a large number of photographs
given that is a newsmagazine focusing on issues affecting gays and
lesbians, it is surprising that there was such a sheer difference in
volume. It is also noteworthy that The Advocate is only issued
bi-weekly, while Newsweek is released every week. Based on these
considerations, it can be concluded that photographs of gay men and
lesbians in articles about the U.S. ban on gays in the military were
much more prevalent in The Advocate than they were in Newsweek, thus
indicating that The Advocate gave the issue more visual prominence
than did Newsweek.
Using the theory of person perception, data were collected on
three categories—behavior, context, perspective—and a total score for
each photograph was calculated. According to Moriarty and Garramone
(1986), photographs provide information about their subjects "through
'stop-action' slices of behavior" (p. 729). Once a behavior is
identified by a viewer, the behavior within a certain context is
considered (Schneider, Hastorf, & Ellsworth, 1979). As such, behavior
and context are closely related, and both can be interpreted as
either positive or negative by a viewer (Clore, Wiggins, & Itkin, 1975).
Although the mean behavior score was slightly higher in The
Advocate and the mean context score was slightly higher in Newsweek,
based on the data collected in this study, there was no significant
difference found in either the category of behavior or context.
Statistical significance was also not found in the total scores
between The Advocate and Newsweek. This could be considered good news
for gay men and lesbians. Considering the findings in behavior and
context, gay men and lesbians were visually presented on equal
footing in both the mainstream and gay news articles about the U.S.
ban on gays in the military.
However, the news is not so positive in consideration of the
category of perspective. Once a photograph is taken, the media then
have a choice of how to present a photograph in terms of perspective.
Photographic considerations, such as angle, lighting, size, and page
position add to the viewer's perception of the photographic content
(Taylor & Fiske, 1975). Based on the data collected in this study,
there was a significant difference in how The Advocate and Newsweek
presented photos of gay men and lesbians in articles about the U.S.
ban on gays in the military. The mean score for the category of
perspective was significantly greater in The Advocate then in
Newsweek. Based on this finding, it can be concluded that Newsweek
did not present the photos of gay men and lesbians as favorably as
did The Advocate. Considering the theory of person perception,
readers of Newsweek are being presented with a less favorable
perspective of the images of gay men and lesbians than are readers of
The Advocate. Newsweek is including fewer photos of gay men and
lesbians, smaller photos, and photos in less prominent positions.
Based on previous research, these factors could have an influence on
how readers are interpreting gay men and lesbians. Again, although a
content analysis cannot determine media effects, the current study
provided an understanding of media content as a starting point for
future effects studies.
In returning to the research question for the study, there was
a quantitative difference in how the photographs of gay men and
lesbians within articles about the U.S. ban on gays in the military
were presented in The Advocate and Newsweek. Given the understanding
that the mass media have an ethical responsibility to provide
representative images rather than to perpetuate negative stereotypes,
it is a positive finding that there was not a significant difference
between the categories of behavior and context. However, this finding
has much more to do with the photographer than with the newsmagazine.
It is likely that both newsmagazines had access to similar
photographs, such as those from the Associated Press. Once the choice
of photo was made, the newsmagazines then had a second choice of how
to present that photo. From the findings, it is clear that in terms
of perspective, The Advocate presented the photos much more favorably
than did Newsweek.
This research opens many doors to future similar studies.
First, research could examine photographs included in other news
issues affecting gay men and lesbians, such as gay marriage. Research
could also compare the photos of homosexuals versus heterosexuals
within articles on similar topics. The study could also be expanded
to examine media other than newsmagazines. From the effects
perspective, the findings of this study could be used to test for
differing audience reactions.
The current study examined only a small area of the visual
representation of gay men and lesbians within the news media.
However, considering the power of photographs and that the news media
have considerable influence on the public's positive and negative
stereotypes of minority groups, the findings of this research
indicate that as a mainstream newsmagazine, Newsweek is not
presenting images of gay men and lesbians as favorably as is the gay
newsmagazine, The Advocate. Based on the importance of the topic, it
is hoped that these findings will contribute to future research on the subject.
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Appendix 1: Coding System
Behavior
Context
Perspective
Torso
Setting
Position
Standing tall, upright
3
Formal
3
Top of Page
3
Sitting or unclear
2
Business or unclear
2
Middle of Page
2
Bowed, slumped
1
Informal
1
Bottom of Page
1
Arms
Dress
Size
Above head
3
Professional military dress, suit and tie
3
Larger than ½ Page
3
Mid-body
2
Business Casual
2
½ Page
2
At side, folded
1
Casual
1
Smaller than ½ Page
1
Face
Interaction
Camera Angle
Cheerful, confident
3
Cheering crowd, attentive peers
3
Looking Up At
3
Serious, unclear
2
Unseen crowd, peers
2
Eye Level
2
Unhappy, worried, tired
1
Alone, inattentive crowd or peers
1
Looking Down At
1
1 Several of the examples Harris and Lester site are provided here,
not to lend credence to these stereotypes as truth, but to provide
examples of the types of media stereotypes in question.
2 Although research has also examined entertainment media portrayals
of gay men and lesbians, this literature review will focus on news
portrayals, as the subject of this study is newsmagazines.
3 For a more complete history of the news coverage of gay men and
lesbians, see News and Sexuality, edited by Castaneda and Campbell.
4 Again, the point here is not to provide a complete history of the
U.S. ban on gays in the military, but rather to provide a brief
historical account to show the importance of the topic. For a
complete history, see Shilts' Conduct Unbecoming.
5 The researcher only had access to issues of The Advocate beginning
in June 1992. As such, analysis of The Advocate articles ran from
June 1992 through December 1995.
6 Although both could be considered similar in news content, Newsweek
was chosen over Time magazine because Time magazine is only available
on a guided news search on the Lexis-Nexis Database for a period of
the previous two years.
7 Again, it is important to note that this data represents only
photographs of people clearly identified as either gay or lesbian in
articles about the U.S. ban on gays in the military. As such, there
may have been news articles about the U.S. ban on gays in the
military during 2004. However, if there were such an article it
either included no photographs or no photographs of a person clearly
identified as either gay or lesbian.
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