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Obtaining 'better news' through better internal management A survey
of first-line managerial competencies in South African
mainstream media newsrooms
Elanie Steyn
School of Communication Studies
North-West University (Potchefstroom campus)
South Africa
Tel: +27 (18) 299 4285
Fax: +27 (18) 299 1651
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TFJ (Derik) Steyn
WorkWell: Research Unit for People, Policy and Performance
School of Entrepreneurship, Marketing and Tourism Management
North-West University (Potchefstroom campus)
South Africa
Tel: +27 (18) 299 1424
Fax: +27 (18) 293 5264
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Arnold S de Beer
Department of Journalism
Stellenbosch University
South Africa
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+27 (21) 808 3488 (Ph & Fax)
Abstract
Changes in the post-apartheid South African mainstream media
landscape have far-reaching implications for human resources
management. The six managerial competencies found in general
management theory (communication; planning and administration;
teamwork; strategic action; global awareness; and self-management)
were applied on a national sample of first-line news managers and
reporters. The central theoretical argument was that first-line news
managers might be better equipped to address the human aspects of
news management should they implement these six managerial
competencies more effectively.
Paper submitted to: International Communication Division, Annual
Convention of the Association for Education in Journalism and Mass
Communication,
San Antonio, Texas, USA, 10-13 August 2005.
Obtaining 'better news' through better internal management A survey
of first-line managerial competencies in South African
mainstream media newsrooms
Abstract
Changes in the post-apartheid South African mainstream media
landscape have far-reaching implications for human resources
management. The six managerial competencies found in general
management theory (communication; planning and administration;
teamwork; strategic action; global awareness; and self-management)
were applied on a national sample of first-line news managers and
reporters. The central theoretical argument was that first-line news
managers might be better equipped to address the human aspects of
news management should they implement these six managerial
competencies more effectively.
Paper submitted to: International Communication Division, Annual
Convention of the Association for Education in Journalism and Mass
Communication,
San Antonio, Texas, USA, 10-13 August 2005.
Obtaining 'better news' through better internal management
6
1. Introduction
Mainstream media in South Africa are in trouble: with the government
(for being 'unprofessional'; unpatriotic; racist); with owners (for
not delivering on the bottom-line) and with readers (for succumbing
to sensationalism and being superficial). Due to continuous external
(but also self-) criticism, the national body of media editors, the
South African National Editors' Forum (Sanef), decreed 2005 as the
year of returning "back to basics". This step was due, amongst other
issues, to some widely reported cases of plagiarism in the media, but
also because the South African Broadcasting Corporation (SABC) and
other news channels came under fire for being subjective and
propagandistic (Kupe, 2004; Berger, 2004; Von Bormann, 2004).
Internally, journalists expressed a growing feeling of management
not treating them fairly, and of being sidelined when major issues
(such as international take-overs; mergers, and changes in news
policy) were discussed and/or implemented.
The above, together with issues such as management styles in the
country's mainstream media and the education and training of
reporters and news managers (De Beer & Steyn, 2002), obligated Sanef
to conduct a national research project on internal newsroom
management specifically the way first-line managers execute their
management tasks and functions, as well as the way in which reporters
perceive internal newsroom management. This paper deals with some of
the more salient results related to the outcome of this project.
2. Problem statement and focus
The 2002 South African National Editors' Forum (Sanef) Journalism
Skills Audit[1] (De Beer & Steyn, 2002; also see Steyn & De Beer,
2002; 2003; 2004) highlighted some management areas, which could
enable the media to manage human resources more effectively in order
for the media to improve on the level of professional output and
subsequently fulfill its rightful role within a democratizing
society. Generally, results from Sanef Audit 1 indicated that that
improper attention to the human aspects of management resulted in
problems with reporters' loyalty toward the particular news medium,
and that news managers often struggle to properly communicate with
and train employees (also see Peters, 2004).
Since many of the values that underpin these management practices
(such as participation and consultation) have not been embraced in
pre-1994 South African society, a redefinition of media
practitioners' roles, their reason for being appointed in media
management positions and what is expected of them is needed.
As elsewhere (see Underwood, 1995), South African media researchers,
academics and practitioners also grapple to fit newsroom management
into a management paradigm to benefit the organization, its
employees, its audience and society at large. Only varied success has
been achieved so far (Kupe, 2004; Berger, 2004; Tyler Eastman, 2002;
Brown, 1992). Within the theory of general management, properly
addressing human aspects of management is integral to organizational
success (Rue & Byars, 2000). A departure point of this paper is thus
that more efficient internal management (by means of the six
managerial competencies found in general management theory) can
contribute towards improved professional performance (see Akande,
2001:10), which in turn could improve news 'production' (Tumber,
1999:61-63; Roshco, 1975; Tuchman, 1978; Gans, 1979) and subsequently
news management. In the final analysis, the above can lead to
increased organizational effectiveness and efficiency the
management goals of any successful organization (also media
organizations Rabe, 2002; Fink, 1996:98).
Sanef Audit I illustrated this principle, and a number of media
researchers and practitioners in the country have since also
underlined this need (e.g. Kupe, 2004; Whitfield, 2002; More, 2002).
Despite this, few media organizations demand, coach, embrace or
reward human aspects of management (Peters, 2004), while news
managers do not necessarily obtain management skills from previous
experience in other fields (Rankin, 1986:24).
Using general management theory (Hellriegel, Jackson, Slocum,
Staude, Amos, Klopper, Louw & Oosthuizen; 2004; Lussier, 2003; Daft,
2003), and applying it to media management (Peters, 2004; Graham &
Thompson, 2001), the present research project was undertaken to
determine the importance first-line news managers[2] and reporters in
South Africa's mainstream[3] media[4] attach to the six managerial
competencies (as applied by Hellriegel et al., 2004) as well as the
extent to which these competencies are implemented. This paper
highlights the research objectives, research methodology, research
results, as well as conclusions and recommendations flowing from the research.
3. Theoretical point of departure
General management theory (Ivancevich, Lorenzi, Skinner & Crosby,
1997) distinguishes basic and additional management functions (i.e.
planning, organizing, leading, control, decision making,
communication, motivation, co-ordination, delegation and
disciplining) needed for successful management. To fulfill these
functions, managers need managerial competencies sets of knowledge,
skills, behaviors and attitudes (first-line news) managers need to be
successful (Hellriegel, Jackson, Slocum, Staude, Amos, Klopper, Louw
& Oosthuizen, 2001:5). More specifically, managerial competencies
refer to skills related to communication, planning and
administration, strategic action, teamwork, global awareness and
self-management. Media management researchers and practitioners
already apply these competencies to study the human aspects of
management in media newsrooms (Peters, 2004; Graham & Thompson, 2001;
Young, 2003), although few examples specifically pointing towards the
South African situation could be found (see below).
However, in Sanef Audit I, results indicated that improved human
resources management might be a key success factor in improving
reporters' skills and ultimately improving journalism output in the
country. The final results for Sanef Audit I thus suggested that
revised management styles and management approaches might even be the
main contributing factor towards improving reporters' commitment,
enthusiasm, motivation, and loyalty to their jobs and their
profession (see Steyn & De Beer, 2002; also see Hellriegel et al., 2001:5).
A key factor in the above recommendations was researchers' cognizance
that the organizational environment of the 21st century is vastly
different from that of two decades ago (Rensburg & Cant, 2003).
Subsequently, management cultures in organizations need to be
revisited (see Gade, 2004). Whereas the traditional emphasis in the
media (and other organizations) a few decades ago was on top-down
management, the new focus tends to be much more on participatory,
democratic or consultative management with 'open doors and open
minds', specifically when it comes to issues such as (news) staff
management (Cameron, 2003). Coinciding with this, the media
environment (specifically in South Africa) is also
changing (Tomaselli & Dunn, 2001), resulting in far-reaching
implications for human resources management in the media (see Steyn &
De Beer, 2002).
In light of the above, the theoretical framework used for the
research was general management theory, and more specifically the six
managerial competencies as described by Hellriegel et al. (2001) and
Oosthuizen, De Bruyn, Jacobs & Kruger (2002:29-32). These competencies are:
Communication (the effective transfer and exchange of information
to promote understanding between managers and employees all crucial
in media management [Markus, 2001]). Peters (2004:5) summarizes the
need for proper newsroom communication as follows: 'Reporters
complain that editors communicate with them exclusively through
e-mail, (while)
top editors complain that they are the last to know
about problems that might profoundly impact (on) the enterprise'. In
comparison, the success of many news managers is often attributed to
their 'human' approach to communication within the newsroom having
personal contact and discussions with employees (Fink, 1996:96).
Internal communication specifically needs proper attention in South
African newsrooms in order to increase sensitivity among employees
and management, address possible misunderstanding between reporters
from different cultural backgrounds, foster trust and credibility,
and assist reporters in professional non-verbal communication (De
Beer & Steyn, 2002:70);
Planning and administration (identifying goals and objectives, as
well as ways to achieve them [Kroon & Van Zyl, 1995]). This element
includes gathering and analyzing information, solving problems, and
proper time and financial management all-important elements
impacting on the media industry and media management (Hollifield,
2003; Fink, 1996:78; Rankin, 1986:33). In the South African media, a
new ownership class (especially in broadcasting), increased
competition for advertising and market share, and lower profit
margins necessitate proper financial management skills (Berger,
2004). Technological innovation, more flexible conditions of
employment, and increased media deadline pressures all call for
improved time management (see De Beer & Steyn, 2002:63);
Strategic action requires insight into both the organization's
mission and values (ensuring that management actions are aligned
accordingly) and into the organization and the industry (Lussier,
2003; also see Kung-Shankleman, 2000 on the role of organizational
vision, mission and culture in managing the BBC and CNN). It also
requires managers to take visionary leadership, especially when it
comes to change management (Gade, 2004). This was a primary aim of
The New York Times Group when it implemented web-casts: to inform
employees on the organization's mission and vision, and provide them
with continuous information on the organization's performance (Jones, 2003);
Teamwork (accomplishing tasks through small groups who work
interdependently and who are collectively responsible for achieving
set goals and/or objectives [Lussier, 2003]). Specific aspects
include team design, a supportive teamwork environment and team
dynamics. This notion is not new to the media. Underwood (1995:x)
coins this 'team journalism' where different team members cooperate
to produce 'a slick and stylized editorial product'. In the United
States, various 'newspapers
have embraced (this). If implemented
effectively, (it) can energize employees,
enhance quality and
encourage
innovation in
newsrooms' (Thompson, 2001:7; also see
Fink, 1996:80). However, poor implementation can de-motivate
employees, resulting in less creative energy and inferior work;
Global awareness (managers' ability to draw resources from
different countries and regions and serve markets across multiple
cultures, appreciate cultural knowledge and cultural sensitivity
[Hellriegel et al., 2004]). Although South African news managers need
sound knowledge and understanding of international cultures, this
managerial competency is especially needed due to the multi-cultural
nature of the South African media environment (Nsidi, 2002). Newsroom
staff could struggle to adequately perform within an increasingly
demanding newsroom environment if they lack this competency (De Beer
& Steyn, 2002); and
Self-management requires managers to take responsibility for their
professional and private lives, and relates to integrity, ethical
conduct, personal drive, balance between work and private life, and
self-development (Hellriegel et al., 2004; also see Montgomery,
Peeters, Schaufeli & Den Ouden, 2003 on the conflicts newspaper
managers experience in fulfilling professional and personal
responsibilities). If news managers take responsibility for their
actions, they could be more confident to admit mistakes and enforce
ethical conduct among reporters. This could result in more effective
human resource management, especially when it comes to the 'new'
generation of reporters referred to earlier (De Beer & Steyn,
2002:72; also see Gaziano & Coulson, 1988:871).
4. Research purpose, objectives and design
Against the above theoretical background, the purpose of the research
was to conduct an audit[5] into the importance attached to and the
implementation of managerial competencies across a national sample of
first-line news managers within South Africa's mainstream news media.
4.1 Research objectives
The research objectives were:
To establish aspects pertaining to reporters' and first-line news
managers' professional profile (e.g. media sites where they work;
gender; educational qualification; mother tongue);
To determine reporters' and first-line news managers' attitudes
towards specific job-related aspects; and
To establish the importance attached to and the implementation of
managerial competencies among first-line news managers in South
Africa's mainstream media.
4.2 Research design
In line with arguments by scholars such as Neuman (2004:82) and
Parasuraman (quoted in Struwig & Stead, 2001:19) that quantitative
and qualitative research complement each other (despite their many
differences), the researchers combined quantitative and qualitative
research designs triangularly (Denzin & Lincoln, 1994). The main aim
was to transform 'data into information (rich in) insights and
knowledge' (Struwig & Stead, 2001:19) and to gain a better
understanding of the issues set out in the research objectives.
In terms of a quantitative research approach, self-administered
questionnaires were used. Data was quantitatively analyzed through
effect size analysis (see Ellis & Steyn, 2003:52; Cohen, 1988:20-27).
From a qualitative research perspective, data was compiled through
semi-structured interviews and analyzed through qualitative content
analysis (see Hocking, Stacks & McDermott, 2003:172). Throughout the
qualitative design, strong emphasis was placed on observational
research. According to Denzin & Lincoln (1994:378), this is 'the act
of noting a phenomenon, often with instruments, and recording it for
scientific or other purposes'. At individual media sites, the
researchers strove (as far as possible) to note the phenomenon of
managing people within a real-time and natural newsroom situation.
Participants were observed in their natural contexts and among those
with whom they naturally interact. Observations were combined with
data from personal interviews with people in higher management levels to:
Identify connections and possible causes[6] which could be linked
to larger trends, patterns or styles of behavior not verbalized
during interviews;
Support or refute comments made or information provided during
interviews (see Denzin & Lincoln, 1994:214-215); and
Ultimately enable researchers to draw conclusions and make
recommendations on the issues studied.
Given the combined research design, quantitative and qualitative data
was compared through triangulation. This is the process through which
methods and investigators are combined in the same study to address
biases of single methodologies and increase reliability and validity
of qualitative research data (Babbie & Mouton, 2001:275-276; Du
Plooy, 2001:39). The following types of triangulation apply to this
study (Janesick, 1994:214-215):
Data triangulation (i.e. combining quantitative data from
questionnaires completed by first-line news managers and reporters
with qualitative data from interviews and the literature study);
Investigator/researcher triangulation (i.e. combining the skills
and expertise of more than one researcher to prevent researcher bias
as far as possible. This form of triangulation also facilitates that
issues are investigated from more than one perspective to gain a
fuller understanding of the research issues at hand);
Methodological triangulation (i.e. combining interviews,
observation and questionnaires); and
Interdisciplinary triangulation (i.e. combining different
interdisciplinary approaches [in this case media and management] to
get a better understanding of the issues investigated and the methods applied).
4.2.1 Sample frame and sampling considerations
In determining the sample frame of South African mainstream media
(N=106) from which the sample was drawn, two fixed variables were
considered, namely media types and media ownership types. This meant
that the researchers could draw conclusions and make comparisons from
results on the basis of these two variables. The only prerequisite
was that at least two cases/sites of each media type (e.g. radio
stations or magazines) or each ownership type (e.g. listed companies
[nationally or internationally], unlisted companies; or companies
with a public service mandate) had to be included in the national
sample (Ellis, 2004). This being the case, a standard deviation (as
measure of spread) (Stempel, Weaver & Wilhoit, 2003:152) could be calculated.
Determining the sampling frame and drawing the sample was thus based
on the following fixed variables:
Media types (all national media producing and distributing news),
based on issues such as specific knowledge among the researchers and
members of Sanef; experience researchers gained from Sanef Audit I on
the nature and scope of the research parameters; and the
methodological requirements for a systematic random sample.
The sample frame and sample of media type (N=47) therefore included:
Daily (N=8) and weekly newspapers (N=6);
Consumer magazines dealing with aspects of hard and soft news
(N=4). Only magazines producing weekly publications were included in
the research sample, as it was anticipated that those operating on a
monthly schedule face different deadline pressures. As a result,
bi-weekly/monthly publications might have skewed the results.
Moreover, only magazines dealing with general actuality issues (for
example not titles specifically focusing on health, business or
gender) were included in the research sample;
Radio stations (independent/commercial and public service
broadcasters) producing and broadcasting news (N=16). The sample
frame did not include campus or community radio stations using
volunteers, but only radio stations with paid employees. In terms of
the SABC as public service broadcaster, regional stations were also
included in the sample frame and the sample;
Television channels (independent/commercial and public service
broadcasters) producing and broadcasting news on an hourly/daily
basis and having paid employees as staff members (N=7);
On-line media (N=4) specifically dealing with news, whether
connected to print publications or electronic broadcasters; and
Mainstream news agencies (N=2). NGO/specialist news agencies or
government news agencies were not included in the sample frame or the sample.
Media ownership. Since 1994 ownership distribution within the South
African media landscape changed considerably (e.g. through
deregulation, the presence of foreign media owners, the issuing of
broadcasting licenses to community and commercial media, and black
economic empowerment). Each of these elements imposed (to a greater
or lesser extent) new demands from owners, shareholders, political
role-players and audiences. Moreover, it could possibly also pose
different challenges related to the availability/lack of resources
and compliance with regulations. Some of these challenges were
already evident in Sanef Audit I.
Subsequently the sample frame and research sample was classified
under the following ownership categories:
Johannesburg Stock Exchange (JSE) listed companies (N=18);
Unlisted companies (N=10);
Companies with a public service mandate (N=13); and
Companies with a majority of foreign shareholding (although local
shareholders might also have been involved) (N=6).
National representivity: It was a requirement of the research
project that results should be as nationally representative as
possible. No comparisons were, however, made from data on the basis
of regional location of media sites. The sample frame (N=106) was
already stratified in a six by four matrix (according to media type
and media ownership) and could not accommodate regional
representation as well. The researchers did not consider this to be
negative, as it enhanced the anonymity of respondents. Purposeful
sampling was thus used to obtain a sample frame from which a 'sample
of information-rich' (Struwig & Stead, 2001:122) participants in the
largest concentration of mainstream media was drawn. The following
geographical areas were included:
Cape Town (N=10);
Johannesburg/Pretoria (N=25);
Durban (N=6);
Port Elizabeth (N=2);
Bloemfontein (N=2); and
Nelspruit (N=2).[7]
Sampling procedure: In sampling, the researchers strove to draw a
representative sample of the country's mainstream media in order to
obtain valid and reliable results that could be generalized across
the sample frame. The following sampling procedure was implemented:
Stage 1: Compiling the sample frame of media sites (N=106). The
number of sites drawn per media type and media ownership type needed
to be proportional to that in the sample frame and distributed across
the geographical areas identified above. A systematic random sample
was then drawn from each stratum to ensure that the above
geographical areas were also represented.
Stage 2: Calculating the proportional sample per media type, on the
basis of, for example: there are X daily newspapers in the sample
frame (from the total sample frame of y), therefore: X divided by y,
times the number of sites to be visited for the survey[8] = the
number of daily newspapers to be included in the sample (N). Based on
this calculation, a total of 47 media sites (representing all media
types) were included in the research sample (N=47).
Stage 3: Drawing the systematic sample from the sample frame, in
order to make the sample as representative and random as possible.
The first step was to determine how many of each media type could be
classified into each ownership category and to proportionally
calculate how many from each ownership category should subsequently
be included in the sample. Then, starting from a random position on
the list of each media type, and including every nth case, the
researchers compiled the required number of cases calculated.
Stage 4: Categorize the above sample into the relevant geographical
areas in order to conduct the fieldwork. This step enabled the
researchers to set up meetings with the relevant contact people (see below).
Stage 5: Drawing a volunteer and availability sample of first-line
news managers at the identified media sites, as fieldwork was
conducted in real time. Meetings were set up telephonically and/or by
e-mail with the relevant contact people (in most cases newspaper and
magazine editors, and peers in broadcasting, on-line media and news
agencies), and they were informed of the purpose of the audit and
fieldwork procedures. The arrangement was that they would inform and
prepare first-line managers of the proposed visit, in order for the
latter to know the reason for being approached to participate in the
research; and
Stage 6: Drawing a volunteer and availability sample of reporters
(reporting directly to the first-line managers mentioned above)
available at the site during fieldwork. As was the case with the
first-line managers, contact people again had to inform reporters
about the planned fieldwork.
4.3 Research instruments
Three research instruments were used in the research project.
Questionnaires for first-line news managers:[9] A self-administered
questionnaire was developed through which information was gathered on
first-line news managers' professional profile, their attitude
towards certain job-related aspects, the importance they attach to
the six theoretical managerial competencies and the extent to which
they implement these competencies in their newsrooms. A total of 79
first-line managers completed questionnaires at the sites visited (N=79);
Questionnaires for reporters:[10] A self-administered questionnaire
was developed for reporters. In this questionnaire information was
gathered on reporters' professional profile, their attitude towards
certain job-related aspects, the importance they attach to the six
managerial competencies and the extent to which they perceive their
first-line managers to implement these competencies within their
newsrooms. A total of 207 reporters completed questionnaires at the
sites visited (N=207).
Questionnaires were handed out to the volunteer and availability
sample of first-line news managers and reporters at the start of the
interview with the contact person, and collected afterwards. Care was
taken to assure respondents that they would remain anonymous in order
to encourage frank and open responses. For biographical information,
questionnaires consisted of closed questions (where respondents had
to choose an option which best described their situation).
Attitudes[11] and perceptions[12] were measured by means of items
arranged on a 5 point Likert scale where 1 represents negative
attitudes or perceptions and 5 represents positive attitudes or
perceptions. With regard to rating perceptions on managerial
competencies, respondents had to use this scale to evaluate the
importance as well as implementation thereof in their newsrooms.
Open-ended questions were also included where respondents had to give
their own perspective on factors they perceive to hamper or promote
performance of first-line managers (whether it was their own
performance or that of their superior).
Interviews: The researchers arranged for semi-structured interviews
with the editorial person in charge of the media site. In the
majority of cases this was the editor (at print media) or news
editor, regional editor, or current affairs editor or on-line editor
(at broadcasting media, on-line media or news agencies). However, in
other cases interviews were delegated to someone else in the
newsroom. Interviews lasted between 30 minutes and 1 hour or longer.
Qualitative impressions were obtained through observation, inter alia
regarding respondents' verbal and non-verbal expression of the
management approach applicable in their newsrooms, as well as the
implementation of the six managerial competencies tested. As
indicated earlier, triangulation was used to compare data from the
interviews with quantitative data from questionnaires to either
support, refute or elaborate on data. A total of 43 interviews were
conducted (N=43).
5. Time frame
The pilot study was conducted in August 2004. Fieldwork commenced in
September 2004 and was completed by February 2005.
6. Research results, discussion and recommendations
Some of the salient results from Sanef Audit II are discussed in the
following section of the paper.[13]
6.1 The professional profile of first-line newsroom managers and
reporters working in the South African mainstream media
The following discussion briefly highlights the professional profile
of first-line news managers and reporters working in the South
African mainstream media as deduced from Table 1.
First-line managers
Half of the respondents work in JSE listed companies, while 54,43%
are located in Johannesburg;
Just more than one third currently work at a daily newspaper;
Males represent 60,56% of the respondents;
A relatively even distribution of an advanced diploma, 3 year B
degree and honors degrees was reported as the highest educational
qualification;
Although English is the mother tongue of only 50,65% of
respondents, 80,82% indicated that they communicate predominantly in
English at work; and
Just under half of them are working in journalism for more than 5
years, while 39,24% of them are employed in their current position
for between 1 and 3 years.
Reporters
A total of 40,58% of the reporters work in a JSE listed company,
while 48,79% are based in Johannesburg;
An almost even distribution was found between male (51,03%) and
female (48,97%) respondents;
As far as highest educational qualification is concerned, most
(23,98%) indicated that they have an advanced diploma;
Only 28,86% indicated English to be their mother tongue, but 72,49%
indicated that they predominantly communicate in English at work;
Half of reporters are employed in journalism for more than 5 years
and 36,10% have been in their current position for between 1 and 3 years;
Most of them (35,29%) indicated that their job title was that of
reporter; and73,73% of them report to the news editor.
2. Positive and negative attitudes among first-line news managers and reporters
The following discussion deals with the section on the job-related
attitudes among first-line news managers and reporters. While the
discussion predominantly focuses on interpretations of the
quantitative results, specific effect sizes[14] and means for
individual statements are provided in Table 2.
Aspects first-line managers have the most positive attitude on
When highlighting the aspects first-line managers have the most
positive attitude on, the following was found:
Willingness to be publicly associated with the media organization
(mean (x2) = 3.923);
Loyalty towards the media organization (x2 = 3.792);
Ethical code of the news organization (x2 = 3.662);
Level of news output compared to rest of the country (x2 = 3.627); and
Level of ethics within the media organization (x2 = 3.618).
Aspects reporters have the most positive attitude on
When highlighting the aspects reporters have the most positive
attitude on, the following was found:
Willingness to be publicly associated with the media organization
(x1 = 3.964);
Loyalty towards the media organization (x1 = 3.892);
Level of ethics within the media organization (x1 = 3.787);
Ethical code of the news organization (x1 = 3.704); and
Level of news output compared to rest of the country (x1 = 3.672).
Aspects first-line managers have the most negative attitude on
When highlighting the aspects first-line managers have the most
negative attitude on, the following was found:
Human resources development (x2 = 2.442);
Funding within the media organization to do their work (x2 = 2.545);
Level of career development within the media organization (x2 = 2.623);
Remuneration policy (x2 = 2.662); and
Infrastructure for managers to do their work (x2 = 2.750).
Aspects reporters have the most negative attitude on
When highlighting the aspects reporters have the most negative
attitude on, the following was found:
Remuneration policy (x1 = 2.445)
Human resources development (x1 = 2.711);
Level of career development within the media organization (x1 = 2.761);
Management style (x1 = 2.885); and
Planning and administration (x1 = 2.876).
These results concerning positive and negative attitudes could have
the following managerial implications in South African mainstream
media newsrooms (see Table 2 for quantitative results):
Both first-line managers and reporters regard themselves as fairly
loyal to their media organizations. This is positive, especially when
considering challenges related to job-hopping and staff turnover
highlighted in Sanef Audit I. Owners and top management should
utilize this situation and work towards investing in the needs and
expectations of staff (on first-line management and reporter level)
in order to capitalize on existing loyalty.
Feelings of loyalty are supported by the finding that both
first-line managers and reporters are willing to be publicly
associated with the media organization they work for. Subsequently,
both groups of respondents might potentially be good ambassadors for
their organization and publicly promote its policies, activities and
virtues. Top management and owners should again take advantage of
this situation, and increase staff's willingness to be associated
with the news organization;
Respondents also feel fairly positive about the ethical code and
the level of ethics in their organizations. This finding might also
tie in with the above two. Because respondents experience that their
organizations act ethical (both towards them and to the journalism
industry), they feel loyal and proud to be associated with it. Media
organizations should thus strive to increase the level of trust and
credibility in the eyes of their employees. If this issue is
neglected, staff morale, trust and credibility might suffer; and
Respondents also indicated a positive attitude about the level of
journalism output at their media organizations compared to that in
the rest of the country. Hence, they feel part of a professional
organization that can compete with other media when it comes to
professional output. Again, top management and owners should make the
most of this attitude, as it can contribute towards staff turning
down offers from other organizations because they feel part of a
professional operation.
When looking at the aspects respondents displayed more negative
attitudes on, the following was found:
Human resources development is the highest and second highest issue
that both first-line managers and reporters feel negative about. It
might be that staff experienced too few opportunities to improve
their skills or that they need to be exposed to a wider range of
skills (i.e. become more multi-skilled). Owners and top management
should thus avail more possibilities for staff development despite
increasing competition and smaller human resource capacity. Failing
to address this, might result in negative attitudes, low morale and
an overall decrease in the level of professional output. However,
investing in human resource development might send the message that
staff are important and that their level of professionalism is vital
for the future benefit of the company.
First-line managers displayed a negative attitude about the
availability of funds to properly do their work. The absence of this
issue from reporters' list of negative attitudes might indicate that
they are not faced with budgetary issues as often as first-line
managers or are not confronted with a lack of financial resources
preventing them from doing their jobs. Media organizations should
take measures to prevent a perception among first-line managers that
they are expected to contribute to the financial bottom line, but
that little funds are available to reinvest into newsrooms.
The level of career development within the media organization was
the third issue about which both groups of respondents expressed
negative attitudes. This can be linked to the lack of human resource
development. If addressed properly, staff might see positive future
prospects for themselves in the company. Thus they might turn down
other career options.
Whereas first-line managers considered their media organizations'
remuneration policy as the fourth issue they feel most negative
about, this was the issue reporters felt the most negative about. As
many interviewees indicated that staff would fairly easily leave
their positions for one with better financial benefits, owners and
management should look for innovative ways in which staff can be
rewarded for investing time and energy into the company.
Finally, first-line managers highlighted their negative attitude on
the infrastructure available to do their work, especially related to
technology; and
Reporters finally expressed a negative attitude about the level of
planning and administration in their media organizations. As this is
a core management competency, the issue should be addressed urgently.
Supporting this, many interviewees stressed that a flatter newsroom
structure makes medium- to long-term planning more difficult. They
also highlighted that the unexpected nature of news often also
hampers proper planning.
6.3 Managerial competencies
The following conclusions can be drawn and recommendations made
regarding the implementation of the six managerial competencies
identified for the purposes of this study. The conclusions are based
on the difference between first-line managers' perception of the
importance of each managerial competency, compared to their
implementation thereof. This is compared with reporters' views
between the importance and implementation thereof by first-line
newsroom managers (for a detailed elaboration on the quantitative
results of each managerial competency, see Tables 3-8).
Communication as a managerial competency
First-line managers indicated a practically significant difference
(d=0.814) between the importance they attach to communication as
managerial competency and the extent to which they implement it in
their day-to-day activities. Reporters, on the other hand, only
indicated a moderately significant difference (d=0.660) between the
importance and implementation of communication by their first-line
managers. With regard to individual management tasks (related to
communication), first-line managers indicated the biggest effect size
with regard to decisively handling difficult reporters (d=0.808).
Reporters, however, highlighted the biggest effect size in terms of
technological resources to accommodate communication needs (d=0.615).
With regard to communication as managerial competency, first-line
managers are thus significantly aware that they do not have the
skills, experience (or maybe time, resources or opportunity) to
implement communication within their newsrooms in the way they think
it ought to be done (see Table 3). Nevertheless, the reason behind
this gap should be identified and first-line managers should be
empowered to use communication as a management tool in order to
address communication deficiencies within newsrooms. Given the
importance of communication within newsrooms (and the whole
industry), this should receive priority attention. Also, the fact
that managers used the opportunity to voice their concerns about
their communication skills should be appreciated and something should
be done to improve the situation. Otherwise managers might feel that
their concerns are not important enough for the media organization to
address. Moreover, should communication skills among first-line
managers improve, it might also succeed in uniting reporters in
newsrooms and improve their level of self-worth and efficiency within
their jobs.
Planning and administration as a managerial competency
First-line managers indicated a moderately significant effect
(d=0.540) between the importance they attach to planning and
administration as managerial competency and the extent to which they
see themselves implementing it. Reporters agreed on this issue, and
also indicated a moderately significant effect (d=0.627) between the
importance and implementation of planning and administration by their
first-line managers. With regard to individual management tasks
(related to planning and administration), both first-line managers
(d=0.849) and reporters (d=0.761) indicated the biggest effect size
related to obtaining resources to deliver the news product.
In general, both groups of respondents acknowledged that (despite the
importance they attach to planning and administration) proper
implementation still lags behind (see Table 4). The larger effect
size indicated by reporters (compared to their first-line managers)
indicates that they feel less satisfied with the extent to which
planning and administration is implemented in newsrooms than their
first-line managers. This finding is supported by a lack of planning
and administration featuring on respondents' list of issues they have
the most negative attitude on (see earlier).
However, given the unique changes and challenges facing the media
environment, first-line managers should be availed the time to
properly plan for decisions they are about to take, plans they are
about to implement or the news product they are about to deliver with
increasingly constrained human and financial resources.
Strategic action as a managerial competency
First-line managers indicated a practically significant effect
(d=0.813) between the importance they attach to strategic action as
managerial competency and the extent to which they see themselves
implementing it. Reporters, however, only indicated a moderately
significant effect (d=0.593) between the importance and
implementation of strategic action tasks by first-line managers.
With regard to individual management tasks (related to strategic
action), first-line managers indicated the biggest effect size when
it came to developing human resources (d=0.888), while reporters
highlighted understanding the concerns of internal stakeholders
(d=0.682) as the most important strategic action issue that needs to
be addressed.
Overall, first-line managers thus regard their ability to implement
strategic action tasks significantly lower than the importance they
attach to it (see Table 5). If media organizations want to survive,
gain market share and compete within the South African media
environment, managers on all organizational levels should be actively
involved in setting and adequately informed on issues like
organizational vision, mission and goals. They must also have
sufficient knowledge of the concerns and characteristics of internal
and external stakeholders, strategic partners and competition. Media
organizations cannot consider first-line managers too low on the
organizational hierarchy to involve them in important decisions
related to these aspects. Should they become more knowledgeable on
these issues, their esteem and recognition in the eyes of reporters
will probably also increase.
Teamwork as a managerial competency
First-line managers indicated a practically insignificant effect
(d=0.433) on the difference between the importance they attach to
teamwork as managerial competency and the extent to which they see
themselves implementing it. Reporters, however, indicated a
practically significant effect (d=0.752) on the difference between
the importance and implementation of teamwork by their first-line
managers. Reporters overall considered the proper implementation of
teamwork in newsrooms far more negative than first-line managers (see Table 6).
With regard to individual management tasks (related to teamwork),
first-line managers regarded structuring their departments to
properly implement teamwork as their biggest stumbling block
(d=0.545). Reporters, however, highlighted the biggest effect size in
terms of first-line managers' inability to properly define individual
objectives within a teamwork environment (d=0.770).
These findings imply an insignificant difference between the
importance first-line managers attach to teamwork as a managerial
competency and the extent to which they implement it in their
newsrooms. However, reporters regard the gap to be significant.
Reasons contributing to this gap could relate to first-line managers
not properly implementing teamwork, not regarding it as an important
managerial competency, or reporters' expectations being too high. The
trend in media (not only in South Africa, but also in other parts of
the world [see Gade, 2004]) is to focus more on teamwork (also given
aspects of convergence, smaller newsrooms, tighter newsroom budgets,
and multi-skilling) than on individual efforts. As a result, South
African newsroom management should identify solutions to the problems
identified by the research. Success in this area can establish
teamwork as an important aspect of news coverage in South African
newsrooms. If not, reporters will be frustrated, as they will regard
their contribution to the news process as of little worth. First-line
managers will be equally frustrated, as they will not witness proper
professional progress. Finally, top management/owners will become
frustrated because their media do not perform as well as they expect it to.
Global awareness as a managerial competency
First-line managers seemed more aware of the practically significant
difference between the importance of global awareness as a managerial
competency and the extent to which they are currently implementing it
(d=0.963). Although reporters are also aware of this difference, they
only indicated an (albeit high) moderately significant effect on this
issue (d=0.730).
Looking at individual management tasks (related to global awareness),
first-line managers indicated the biggest effect size with regard to
developing multi-lingual skills (d=1.002) and having the confidence
to effectively handle ethnic/cultural differences (d=0.817).
Reporters, however, indicated a moderately significant effect size on
all the management tasks needed for a first-line manager to properly
implement global awareness as a managerial competency (see Table 7).
Their most important concern, however, was the issue of first-line
managers gaining an understanding of ethnic/cultural differences (d=0.703).
These results highlight a realization among first-line managers on
the difference between importance of global awareness as managerial
competency and the extent to which they implement it in their
newsrooms. This signals to higher management that first-line managers
perceive themselves inadequate on these management tasks.
Multiculturalism and multilingualism are realities in South African
newsrooms. First-line managers should therefore be equipped with
tools and skills to muster this as a unifying factor in newsrooms and
not something that divides newsroom staff.
Self-management as a managerial competency
First-line managers indicated a practically significant effect
(d=0.818) between the importance they attach to self-management as a
managerial competency and the extent to which they perceive
themselves as implementing it. Reporters, however, indicated a
moderately significant effect (d=0.664) on the difference between the
importance and implementation of this competency.
With regard to individual management tasks (related to
self-management), first-line managers (d=0.764) and reporters alike
(d=0.724) expressed their biggest concern related to addressing
individual weaknesses.
In general, effect sizes on this managerial competency indicated that
first-line managers perceive their ability to implement
self-management as a bigger problem than do reporters (see Table 8).
If first-line managers are unable to properly implement the
management tasks related to self-management, it might lead to
reporters becoming demotivated and first-line managers experiencing
failure. This might, in turn have negative consequences on their
private lives. The opposite is also true: if first-line managers are
not fulfilled in terms of their personal lives, it will most probably
spill over into their professional lives, with negative professional
consequences.
7. Conclusions
This study set out to determine ways in which improved internal
newsroom management (by implementing six managerial competencies
generally applied within the theory of general management) could
result in improved newsroom relationships, improved levels of news
management and news production, and ultimately delivering a better
news product to the ever-changing array of South African media
audiences. In the process, several positive, but also a number of
rather problematic findings were made through triangulating
qualitative and quantitative data from the three groups of
respondents. Despite (but perhaps due to) fundamental changes
throughout the South African media environment (e.g. related to
ownership, audience composition, and newsroom staff composition),
first-line managers overall expressed a more negative attitude
towards several aspects of their jobs. They themselves highlighted
that issues related to the lack of budget and resources; a lack of
skills development and staff shortages prevent them from properly
performing as is expected of them.
Similarly, reporters also expressed awareness that first-line
newsroom managers face a difficult task to effectively do their jobs.
Nevertheless, reporters still expressed a more positive attitude
about their working environment than did their first-line managers.
The findings on managerial competencies among first-line managers in
South African mainstream media newsrooms underlined that both
first-line news managers and reporters are aware of a gap between the
importance of these competencies and the way in which it is currently
implemented. In some cases (e.g. with regard to global awareness and
communication), first-line managers acknowledged that they do not
perform as well as they think they should. In other cases (such as
teamwork), reporters seemed much more aware of managerial
deficiencies than their first-line managers do.
Several factors can be attributed to this lack of managerial
competencies. These relate to increasing pressure from higher
management levels and owners to do more (within tighter deadline
pressure) with fewer human and other resources, a lack of time and
skills to properly coach and mentor reporters resulting in more
responsibility on first-line managers to also do much of the work
reporters are supposed to do and newsroom staff (as well as
audiences) having higher expectations of what the media organization
(as an employer, but also a provider of information) should offer them.
Nevertheless, results from this study made it clear that top
management and owners in the South African mainstream media should
take cognizance of the issues identified. If media organizations want
to survive within an increasingly competitive (local and
international) media environment, they should invest in improved
internal management by equipping first-line news managers with
managerial competencies that would enable them to properly manage
human resources, producing and delivering a better news product and
ultimately contributing to the democratization process in the country.
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Table 1: Professional profile of first-line news managers and
reporters working in the South African mainstream media a summary
of most predominant findings
First-line news managers (N=79)
Reporters (N=207)
Ownership type
Work in JSE listed company 50,63%
Work in JSE listed company 40,58%
Geographical location
Johannesburg 54,43%
Johannesburg 48,79%
Media in which respondents currently work
Daily newspaper 34,17%
Weekly newspaper 25,85%
Broadcasting (radio) 25,85%
Gender
Male 60,56%
Male 51,03%
Female 48,97%
Highest educational qualification
Advanced diploma 20,25%
3 year B degree 21,52%
Honors degree 22,78%
Advanced diploma 23,98%
3 year B degree 19,89%
Mother tongue
English 50,65%
English 28,86%
Afrikaans - 20,9%
Language in which respondents mostly
communicate in at work
English 80,82%
English 72,49%
Period in journalism
Longer than 5 years 48,05%
Longer than 5 years 50,24%
Position in the organization
Other (e.g. sports editor, managing editor, life-
style editor, executive producer, supplement
editor, foreign editor, and assistant editor)
37,18%
Reporter 35,29%
Period in this position
Between 1 and 3 years 39,24%
Between 1 and 3 years 36,10%
Position before becoming a first-line manager
Other (e.g. sub editor, night editor, senior
producer, editor at other media, feature editor
and deputy editor (e.g. news, sport) 43,04%
Senior reporter 41,77%
Person reporter reports to
News editor 53,73%
Obtaining 'better news' through better internal management
6
Table 2: Attitudes among first-line news managers and reporters (1 =
extremely negative, 5 = extremely positive)
Issue
First-line news managers (N=79)
Reporters (N=204)
N
Mean (x2)
Std deviation
N
Mean (x1)
Std deviation
Effect size (d)
12.1 Structure of internal communication
76
2.857
1.109
201
3.045
1.160
0.16
12.2 Level of planning and administration
76
2.789
0.943
201
2.876
1.115
0.08
12.3 Implementation of teamwork to improve news gathering/reporting
74
2.973
1.01
196
3.005
1.197
0.03
12.4 Strategic leadership within your organization
75
2.974
1.020
197
3.040
1.213
0.05
12.5 Sensitivity among first-line managers about industry related trends
73
3.108
1.015
195
3.158
1.203
0.04
12.6 Human resources development
76
2.442
0.966
199
2.711
1.207
0.22
12.7 Infrastructure for managers to do their work
75
2.750
1.021
180
3.222
1.237
0.38
12.8 Infrastructure for reporters to do their work
77
3.000
1.006
196
2.959
1.211
0.03
12.9 Remuneration policy
76
2.662
0.982
197
2.445
1.092
0.20
12.10 Management style
76
2.779
1.008
199
2.885
1.153
0.09
12.11 Nature of employment
75
3.316
0.983
202
3.270
1.119
0.04
12.12 Opportunities for being creative in news gathering/production
76
3.390
1.053
197
3.422
1.134
0.03
12.13 Opportunities to give input into news management structures
75
3.132
1.112
197
3.000
1.127
0.12
12.14 Current working conditions in your media organization
77
2.885
1.006
199
2.980
1.166
0.08
12.15 Loyalty towards the media organization
76
3.792
1.139
202
3.892
1.107
0.09
12.16 Ability to match personal values with that of the organization
76
3.351
1.133
196
3.503
1.013
0.13
12.17 Willingness to be publicly associated with the media organization
77
3.923
1.114
195
3.964
1.056
0.04
12.18 Funding within the media organization to do your work
76
2.545
1.046
197
3.086
1.293
0.42
12.19 Organizational structure
77
2.910
0.914
200
3.100
1.127
0.17
12.20 Level of news output compared to rest of the country
74
3.627
0.969
199
3.672
1.082
0.04
12.21 Overall level of professional skills in the media organization
77
3.051
1.056
197
3.480
1.103
0.39
12.22 Ethical code of your news organization
76
3.662
1.100
202
3.704
1.148
0.04
12.23 Level of ethics within your media organization
75
3.618
0.938
201
3.787
1.079
0.16
12.24 Pressure from external stakeholders aimed at management
75
2.895
1.078
188
3.032
1.107
0.12
12.25 Pressure from external stakeholders aimed at reporters
76
2.857
1.009
188
2.990
1.105
0.12
12.26 Level of career development within the media organization
76
2.623
1.112
200
2.761
1.250
0.11
12.27 First-line news managers' knowledge of specific media policies
77
3.320
0.987
200
3.332
1.152
0.01
12.28 First-line news managers' ability to transfer this to reporters
75
2.961
0.958
197
3.086
1.258
0.10
12.29 Level of technical skills among first-line news managers
76
3.416
0.978
201
3.614
1.115
0.18
12.30 Importance to reporters' safety while covering a news event
75
3.605
0.967
194
3.185
1.246
0.34
Average
3.107
0.682
3.209
0.803
0.13
Table 3: Difference between the importance first-line news managers
attach to communication as managerial competency and the extent to
which they perceive themselves as implementing the management task
described, compared to the difference between the importance
reporters attach to each of the items related to communication as a
managerial competency and the extent to which they perceive their
first-line managers to implement the management task described
Communication as managerial competency
First-line news managers
Reporters
N
Mean
Std deviation
Effect size (d)
N
Mean
Std deviation
Effect size (d)
13.1.1 Originating formal communication
71
0.446
0.922
0.474
180
0.633
1.316
0.481
13.1.2 Encouraging feedback and comment from reporters
70
0.568
0.810
0.688
175
0.749
1.424
0.526
13.1.3 Technological resources to accommodate communication needs
68
0.378
0.976
0.377
166
0.801
1.304
0.615
13.1.4 Soliciting interpersonal communication between self and reporters
67
0.433
1.033
0.419
174
0.868
1.490
0.583
13.1.5 Maintaining sound interpersonal relationships with reporters
72
0.417
0.835
0.499
175
0.817
1.365
0.599
13.1.6 Taking into account reporters' feelings/emotions in communication
74
0.243
0.773
0.315
172
0.826
1.631
0.506
13.1.7 Negotiating resources for reporters
61
0.475
0.959
0.496
169
0.947
1.593
0.594
13.1.8 Developing relationships with higher management
71
0.620
1.047
0.591
173
0.543
1.484
0.366
13.1.9 Exercising influence with higher management
71
0.866
1.072
0.655
168
0.619
1.455
0.425
13.1.10 Decisively handling difficult reporters
67
2.779
1.008
0.808
172
0.756
1.607
0.470
13.1.11 Handling difficult reporters fairly
67
0.552
0.942
0.586
167
0.754
1.562
0.483
13.1.12 Using hierarchical structures to promote communication
68
0.324
0.999
0.324
162
0.383
1.533
0.250
13.1.13 Aligning goals to promote communication
64
0.578
0.989
0.585
164
0.750
1.424
0.527
13.1.14 Language skills that promote communication
71
0.535
1.053
0.508
170
0.671
1.322
0.507
13.1.15 Handling multi-cultural differences to promote communication
68
0.265
0.840
0.316
168
0.685
1.398
0.490
13.1.16 Handling multi-lingual differences to promote communication
65
0.508
0.986
0.515
164
0.598
1.413
0.423
Table 4: Difference between the importance first-line news managers
attach to planning and administration as managerial competency and
the extent to which they perceive themselves as implementing the
management task described, compared to the difference between the
importance reporters attach to each of the items related to planning
and administration as a managerial competency and the extent to which
they perceive their first-line managers to implement the management
task described
Planning and administration as managerial competency
First-line news managers
Reporters
N
Mean
Std deviation
Effect size (d)
N
Mean
Std deviation
Effect size (d)
13.2.1 Taking well-informed decisions despite deadline pressure
73
0.521
0.852
0.460
172
0.715
1.314
0.687
13.2.2 Anticipating consequences of risks taken to deliver news product
70
0.386
0.839
0.419
175
0.749
1.424
0.544
13.2.3 Defending consequences of risks taken
68
0.397
0.949
0.767
173
0.711
1.328
0.535
13.2.4 Pro-actively developing plans to improve output
70
0.686
0.894
0.804
174
0.983
1.412
0.696
13.2.5 Pro-actively scheduling plans to achieve set goals
65
0.815
1.014
0.535
171
0.906
1.500
0.604
13.2.6 Prioritizing tasks to deliver the desired news product
70
0.443
0.828
0.611
172
0.971
1.309
0.742
13.2.7 Delegating responsibility for tasks
67
0.373
0.918
0.406
172
0.483
1.340
0.360
13.2.8 Delegating authority to perform tasks
67
0.463
0.841
0.550
170
0.571
1.323
0.431
13.2.9 Identifying resources to deliver news product
67
0.672
0.877
0.766
171
0.825
1.407
0.586
13.2.10 Obtaining resources to deliver the news product
64
0.969
1.140
0.849
173
1.052
1.382
0.761
13.2.11 Organizing resources obtained
66
0.621
0.941
0.660
174
0.908
1.378
0.659
13.2.12 Keeping accurate and complete financial documentation
45
0.644
1.264
0.510
151
0.358
1.453
0.246
13.2.13 Budgeting for activities in the department/section
48
0.604
1.086
0.556
151
0.358
1.503
0.238
13.2.14 Using financial information to plan activities
51
0.569
1.063
0.535
148
0.426
1.557
0.273
13.2.15 Using financial information when taking decisions
52
0.577
1.073
0.538
150
0.353
1.498
0.236
13.2.16 Using financial information when performing control activities
49
0.694
1.025
0.677
146
0.253
1.562
0.162
13.2.17 Handling a variety of incidents at once
70
0.243
0.690
0.352
173
0.636
1.467
0.433
Table 5: Difference between the importance first-line news managers
attach to strategic action as managerial competency and the extent to
which they perceive themselves as implementing the management task
described, compared with the difference between the importance
reporters attach to strategic action as managerial competency and the
extent to which they perceive their first-line managers to implement
the management task described
Strategic action as managerial competency
First-line news managers
Reporters
N
Mean
Std deviation
Effect size (d)
N
Mean
Std deviation
Effect size (d)
13.3.1 Monitoring changes in the department/section
66
0.566
0.895
0.643
166
0.916
1.407
0.651
13.3.2 Monitoring changes in the media organization
62
0.742
1.443
0.648
161
0.689
1.472
0.469
13.3.3 Monitoring changes in the media environment
65
0.738
1.136
0.650
165
0.782
1.440
0.543
13.3.4 Monitoring changes in the broader South African context
63
0.698
0.998
0.714
164
0.732
1.445
0.506
13.3.5 Monitoring changes in the international context
60
0.617
1.091
0.565
159
0.516
1.445
0.357
13.3.6 Knowing the national news agenda
68
0.309
0.718
0.430
171
0.474
1.160
0.408
13.3.7 Knowing the international news agenda
63
0.333
0.803
0.415
169
0.462
1.230
0.375
13.3.8 Playing a role in setting the news agenda
64
0.641
1.104
0.580
167
0.551
1.471
0.374
13.3.9 Knowing the organization's news policy
67
0.493
0.975
0.505
169
0.462
1.249
0.370
13.3.10 Implementing the organization's news policy
67
0.522
0.877
0.596
171
0.398
1.370
0.290
13.3.11 Being informed on the activities of other media organizations
68
0.529
1.072
0.494
170
0.535
1.246
0.430
13.3.12 Being informed on the activities of strategic partners
60
0.833
1.237
0.673
164
0.598
1.351
0.442
13.3.13 Understanding the concerns of internal stakeholders
65
0.677
0.970
0.698
169
1.107
1.622
0.682
13.3.14 Understanding the concerns of external stakeholders
67
0.657
1.225
0.536
161
0.609
1.441
0.422
13.3.15 Knowing the organization's vision, mission and goals
70
0.657
1.006
0.654
167
0.479
1.217
0.394
13.3.16 Making decisions in line with organizational vision, mission
68
0.559
1.056
0.529
170
0.471
1.346
0.350
13.3.17 Ensuring that operational goals support organizational strategy
64
0.625
1.120
0.558
164
0.390
1.322
0.295
13.3.18 Realizing organizational goals
65
0.631
0.993
0.635
167
0.389
1.316
0.296
13.3.19 Developing human resources
65
1.046
1.178
0.888
171
0.947
1.577
0.601
13.3.20 Understanding nature of news product vis-ΰ-vis target audience
68
0.471
0.938
0.502
171
0.725
1.183
0.613
Table 6: Difference between the importance first-line news managers
attach to teamwork as managerial competency and the extent to which
they perceive themselves as implementing the management task
described, compared with the difference between the importance
reporters attach to strategic action as managerial competency and the
extent to which they perceive their first-line managers to implement
the management task described
Teamwork as managerial competency
First-line news managers
Reporters
N
Mean
Std deviation
Effect size (d)
N
Mean
Std deviation
Effect size (d)
13.4.1 Structuring department to implement teamwork
61
0.623
1.143
0.545
162
1.012
1.410
0.718
13.4.2 Organizing reporters into teams
51
0.549
1.238
0.443
157
0.752
1.422
0.529
13.4.3 Assisting reporters in acquiring knowledge to work in teams
53
0.453
1.367
0.331
160
0.988
1.500
0.660
13.4.4 Formulating teamwork objectives
58
0.466
1.246
0.374
157
0.854
1.344
0.635
13.4.5 Motivating reporters to perform satisfactorily in teamwork situations
58
0.397
1.091
0.363
161
0.839
1.545
0.543
13.4.6 Sharing the responsibilities associated with teamwork
62
0.565
1.168
0.483
158
0.949
1.431
0.663
13.4.7 Compiling teams to accommodate diverse ideas
60
0.533
1.255
0.425
158
0.924
1.558
0.593
13.4.8 Compiling teams to effectively utilize technical skills
57
0.439
1.165
0.376
160
0.919
1.550
0.593
13.4.9 Defining team objectives
61
0.279
1.267
0.220
157
0.739
1.451
0.509
13.4.10 Defining individual objectives
61
0.311
1.073
0.290
160
1.088
1.411
0.770
13.4.11 Creating an environment where teamwork is rewarded
55
0.709
1.560
0.455
159
1.113
1.526
0.729
13.4.12 Coaching/mentoring/counseling reporters through team project
57
0.596
1.425
0.419
155
1.058
1.568
0.675
13.4.13 Supporting teams in identifying resources needed
53
0.472
1.367
0.345
157
0.911
1.487
0.613
13.4.14 Supporting teams in obtaining resources needed
52
0.538
1.350
0.399
156
0.917
1.450
0.632
13.4.15 Understanding individual strengths and weaknesses within a team
61
0.180
1.272
0.142
162
1.019
1.481
0.688
13.4.16 Managing team conflict
58
0.517
1.328
0.390
158
1.038
1.518
0.684
13.4.17 Sharing recognition and credit with members of the team
62
0.274
1.027
0.267
164
0.945
1.424
0.664
13.4.18 Praising reporters in the department
62
0.323
0.920
0.351
165
0.879
1.477
0.595
Table 7: Difference between the importance first-line news managers
attach to global awareness as managerial competency and the extent to
which they perceive themselves as implementing the management task
described, compared with the difference between the importance
reporters attach to strategic action as managerial competency and the
extent to which they perceive their first-line managers to implement
the management task described
Global awareness as managerial competency
First-line news managers
Reporters
N
Mean
Std deviation
Effect size (d)
N
Mean
Std deviation
Effect size (d)
13.5.1 Being informed about social, political changes in SA
71
0.451
0.713
0.632
170
0.612
1.157
0.529
13.5.2 Being informed about international social, political changes
71
0.535
0.861
0.694
170
0.612
1.121
0.546
13.5.3 Recognizing the impact of these changes on the media
69
0.609
0.861
0.707
165
0.618
1.150
0.537
13.5.4 Developing multi-lingual skills
67
1.104
1.103
1.002
165
0.945
1.507
0.627
13.5.5 Confidence in handling ethnic/cultural differences
70
0.786
0.961
0.817
167
0.874
1.411
0.620
13.5.6 Gaining understanding in ethnic and cultural differences
69
0.478
0.740
0.646
167
0.922
1.313
0.703
13.5.7 Being sensitive to ethnic and cultural cues
71
0.563
0.770
0.732
167
0.790
1.289
0.613
13.5.8 Being able to adapt to ethnic and cultural cues
71
0.577
0.889
0.650
168
0.888
1.351
0.656
13.5.9 Adjusting behavior when interacting with different cultures
70
0.486
0.756
0.642
169
0.775
1.344
0.577
Table 8: Difference between the importance first-line news managers
attach to self-management as managerial competency and the extent to
which they perceive themselves as implementing the management task
described, compared with the difference between the importance
reporters attach to strategic action as managerial competency and the
extent to which they perceive their first-line managers to implement
the management task described
Self-management as managerial competency
First-line news managers
Reporters
N
Mean
Std deviation
Effect size (d)
N
Mean
Std deviation
Effect size (d)
13.6.1 Conduct based on clear personal values
70
0.371
0.726
0.512
162
0.586
1.244
0.471
13.6.2 Accommodating different personal values
70
0.500
0.847
0.590
163
0.963
1.374
0.701
13.6.3 Upholding ethical code of news organization
70
0.257
0.695
0.370
168
0.667
1.241
0.537
13.6.4 Admitting to personal mistakes
71
0.380
0.931
0.408
164
1.018
1.513
0.673
13.6.5 Working diligently
71
0.197
0.768
0.257
170
0.694
1.216
0.571
13.6.6 Being conscious of a healthy lifestyle
69
0.478
1.106
0.432
154
0.351
1.553
0.226
13.6.7 Being able to lead a healthy lifestyle
70
0.800
1.325
0.604
154
0.299
1.491
0.200
13.6.8 Taking responsibility
69
0.261
0.678
0.384
168
0.845
1.300
0.650
13.6.9 Being ambitious/motivated to achieve set objectives
71
0.592
1.050
0.563
168
0.625
1.307
0.478
13.6.10 Persevering under conditions of failure and stress
70
0.457
0.846
0.540
168
0.685
1.263
0.542
13.6.11 Coping with secondary trauma
61
0.443
0.886
0.500
156
0.814
1.390
0.586
13.6.12 Balancing private life and work responsibilities
69
0.986
1.300
0.758
161
0.745
1.433
0.520
13.6.13 Taking reporters' physical state into account
62
0.435
0.880
0.495
161
0.677
1.465
0.462
13.6.14 Taking reporters' mental state into account
61
0.492
0.924
0.532
160
0.950
1.516
0.627
13.6.15 Being able to clearly define personal and professional goals
69
0.623
1.059
0.589
162
0.698
1.361
0.513
13.6.16 Maximizing individual strengths
71
0.521
0.790
0.659
167
0.910
1.348
0.675
13.6.17 Addressing individual weaknesses
71
0.803
1.050
0.764
165
1.024
1.414
0.724
13.6.18 Being able to learn from mistakes and past experience
71
0.437
0.806
0.542
168
1.024
1.431
0.716
[1] Hereafter Sanef Audit I.
[2] This term refers to news managers who 'are directly responsible
for the production of goods and services' (Hellriegel et al.,
2004:12). In this study the term refers to news managers (e.g. news
editors, assignment editors, section editors or night editors)
responsible for the 'production' of news by reporters.
[3] Including mainstream media in the study was motivated by the
fact that these media organizations employ more full-time salaried
workers and often operate under different conditions compared to
community media.
[4] The term mainstream media refers to daily and weekly newspapers,
consumer magazines, radio stations, television channels, mainstream
news agencies and mainstream on-line media.
[5] Hereafter Sanef Audit II.
[6] 5 It should be noted that the primary purpose of Sanef Audit II
was not to establish causal links between the different research variables.
[7] Other metropolitan areas such as Kimberley, Polokwane and
East-London were not included, mainly because of geographical
location and a lower concentration of national media sites that would
fit the research profile.
[8] Due to budgetary considerations, Sanef suggested that a total of
47 media sites should be included in the project.
[9] The questionnaire for first-line news managers was tested for
validity and reliability by subjecting it to Confirmatory Factor
Analysis (CFA) and calculating Cronbach's Alpha coefficients. These
indicated the questionnaire to be both valid and reliable.
[10] The questionnaire for reporters was tested for validity and
reliability by subjecting it to Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA)
and calculating Cronbach's Alpha coefficients. These indicated the
questionnaire to be both valid and reliable.
[11] In the second section of the questionnaires, both first-line
news managers and reporters had to rate the attitude they have
towards specific aspects of their working environment and the media
organization they work for. For the purposes of this research, the
concept 'attitude' was defined as 'positive or negative evaluations
of people, things, and situations' (Lussier, 2003:271) which
'predisposes a person to act in a certain way' (Daft, 2003:481). Daft
(2003:481) underlines what the researchers wanted to establish by
measuring respondents' attitudes, namely to indicate to media
management that 'negative attitudes can be both the result of
underlying problems in the workplace as well as a contributor to
forthcoming problems'. Positive attitudes, on the other hand, can
point towards 'what is going right in the workplace' (Plunkett &
Attner, 1994:550).
[12] In the third section of the questionnaires, both first-line
news managers and reporters had to rate their perception of the
importance and implementation of the six managerial competencies. For
the purposes of this research, the concept 'perception' was defined
as 'ways of observing and the bases for making judgments' (Plunkett &
Attner, 1994:359). These form the 'cognitive process people use to
make sense out of the environment, by selecting, organizing and
interpreting information' (Daft, 2003:485). Perceptions 'right or
wrong, affect behavior and performance' (Lussier, 2003:269) and
management should be aware of existing perceptions in order to
anticipate ways in which behavior and performance might be affected.
[13] A detailed discussion of the research results is available in
the original (unpublished) preliminary report available from the first author.
[14] The effect sizes (d-values) were calculated by using the
following formula (Cohen, 1988:20-27): where:
d = effect size;
is the difference between means of two compared groups (first-line
managers and reporters); and
is the maximum standard deviation of the two compared groups.
Cohen (1988:20-27) gives the following guidelines for interpreting
effect sizes:
d 0.2 = no practically significant effect;
d 0.5 = moderate effect; and
d 0.8 or larger = a practically significant effect.
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