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STUDENT
WOMEN IN ADVERTISEMENTS ACROSS CULTURES
Pamela K. Morris
Doctoral Student
S.I. Newhouse School of Public Communications
Syracuse University
215 University Place
Syracuse, New York 13244-2100, U.S.A
phone: (315) 422-2799
fax: (315) 443-3946
[log in to unmask]
ABSTRACT
There are few cross-cultural studies that investigate women's
representation in advertisements. As a powerful force, advertising
influences women's identity and relations with others. Cross-cultural
comparisons can help identify factors determining depictions of
women. Using content analysis, this study reviews magazine advertisements
over 24 different countries for the presence of women. It focuses on the
visual and on bodies within advertising space. Findings link social system
dimensions of individual countries to the presence of women in advertising.
________________________________________________________________________________
Paper submitted to AEJMC Convention, July 30 to August 2, 2003, in Kansas
city, MO, to the International Communication Division's Markham Competition
for Student Papers: Catherine Cassara, Department of Journalism, Bowling
Green State University, Bowling Green, OH 43403, Telephone: 419/372-2372,
Fax: 419/372-0202, E-mail: [log in to unmask]
ABSTRACT
There are few cross-cultural studies that investigate women's
representation in advertisements. As a powerful force, advertising
influences women's identity and relations with others. Cross-cultural
comparisons can help identify factors determining depictions of
women. Using content analysis, this study reviews magazine advertisements
over 24 different countries for the presence of women. It focuses on the
visual and on bodies within advertising space. Findings link social system
dimensions of individual countries to the presence of women in advertising.
________________________________________________________________________________
Paper submitted to AEJMC Convention, July 30 to August 2, 2003, in Kansas
city, MO, to the International Communication Division's Markham Competition
for Student Papers: Catherine Cassara, Department of Journalism, Bowling
Green State University, Bowling Green, OH 43403, Telephone: 419/372-2372,
Fax: 419/372-0202, E-mail: [log in to unmask]
INTRODUCTION
The average person is exposed to 1,800 messages daily and over $456
billion is spent on advertising worldwide (McCann Erickson, 2001) making
advertising a major force and economic base. As a socializing agent,
advertising creates sensations, and particularly cogent are ideal or less
than ideal portrayals of women. How are images of women in ads influenced
by social systems in various countries?
Globalization is a paradox; it necessitates an understanding of cultural
differences like never before. Experts generally agree that consumers
respond more favorably to messages that are congruent with their cultures
(Zhang & Gelb, 1996). Others suggest that advertisers must conform to the
cultural values and norms of a target market in order to communicate
successfully with its audience (Al-Olayan & Karande, 2000).
Gender roles are a key aspect of culture. Cheng (1997) asserts that they
are the "most important indicators of codified behavior in all societies"
(pp. 295–296). Roles result from different dimensions of a country,
including religious beliefs, political philosophy, sanctions, values,
social norms, and other traditions.
Portrayals of women are often depicted in stereotypical roles, that are
"potentially debilitating and demeaning, and are also inaccurate" (Lazier &
Kendrick, 1993, pp. 200-201). "Representation has always been an important
battle ground for contemporary feminism" (van Zoonen, 1994, p.
12). Feminist critics believe that portrayals in ads are partly
responsible for creating and maintaining limited social opportunities for
women (Busby & Leichty, 1993).
Advertising is often called a "type of distorted mirror regarding its
ability to reflect and transmit cultural values" (Pollay & Gallagher, 1990,
p. 360). Messages need to convey meaning quickly, in limited time and
space, and "therefore exploit symbols that are relevant and salient to
society" (van Zoonen, 1994, p. 67). Such attributes make ads particularly
good vehicles to examine gender role portrayals in different countries.
Although there are many studies of gender role images, they fail to
quantify or link possible social system influence with content. They avoid
answering the question: What dimensions of a country's social system
affect advertising content, if at all? Rather the findings yield only
detailed, descriptive evidence of role portrayal differences in various
countries.
A meta-analysis of advertising content research found that 40 of 59
investigations were concerned solely with the United States (Abernethy &
Franke, 1996). In a world that is increasingly losing borders, it is
startling that more research has not tackled analysis of advertising across
cultures. Perhaps this is a natural reflection of America's disinterest in
the rest of the world, or its sheer dominance. The time is right for
understanding people in other nations. A study of worldwide advertising is
needed.
Using a quantitative content analysis method, this project addresses social
and cultural dimensions of countries and their relationship on women's
presence in advertising. Advertisements from a purposive, convenience
sample of consumer general interest publications are the sampling unit. As
the level of analysis, social systems are quantified using data from
published reports of industry and government statistics including gross
domestic product, civil rights, literacy rate of women, and percentage of
women in the labor force.
Culture and social literature are underpinnings of the research. Classic
writing by Tönnies and Mead provide the basis for contemporary
theory. Social/behavioral and cultural/critical mass communication
paradigms offer models that best relate communications to social
systems. Feminist and advertising studies are also used. The feminist
perspective comprises a bundle of issues that criticize social system
barriers that prohibit women's opportunities. Advertising is argued to
perpetuate everyday knowledge of culture and society and provide an ideal
vehicle to study gender roles.
THEORY
As the study is based on cultural and social differences, historical
references and definitions are reviewed to provide a platform for
understanding social processes within societies and the possible effects on
communication.
Culture
Culture can be defined as a standard for a particular group with "special
social values clustering around traditions" (Sapir, 1994, p. 23). In
German, there are two relevant meanings, one describes the activities of
the elite; and, the other "the geist of a people, the underlying soul or
spirit" (Sapir, 1994, p. 30). It can be described as a complex set of
ideas of the larger value of life that belong to a group.
In a major cross-cultural project, Hofstede (1984) defines culture as "the
collective programming of the mind which distinguishes the members of one
human group from another…, the interactive aggregate of common
characteristics that influence a human group's response to its environment"
(p. 31). Countries are comprised of unique homogeneous characteristics and
communications function within these boundaries. Advertising, as a
cultural form, "displays a preoccupation with gender that is hardly matched
in any genre" (van Zoonen, 1994, p. 67).
Social systems
Social systems are in tandem with culture. Tönnies believes that group
life is only possible through regular behavior. People's thinking and
experiences result directly from social life to create a logical system he
considers social entities. He proposes this as a requirement to understand
social phenomena (Tönnies, 1957).
Similarly, Mead (1934) suggests "general social attitudes" make an
organized self possible (p. 260). He describes "common response" as
specific ways of acting under situations that are essential within a group
(p. 261). Organized sets of responses are related to each other, which
Mead calls the "generalized other" (p. 261). Feminist scholar van Zoonen
(1994) asserts that gender is a deeply felt element of the social structure
in providing effective symbols (p. 67).
Tönnies considers three groups of social values: economic, political, and
intellectual or spiritual. These provide commonality and points of
reference for social interaction. This study addresses those that are most
relevant for representation of women in the media: gross domestic product,
civil rights, percent literacy for women, and percent of women in the labor
force.
Transmissional and ritual perspectives
The transmissional and ritual perspectives are contemporary theories that
provide a cultural basis for analysis of mass communication. The models
emphasize the importance of people's everyday rituals in interpreting
experiences and suggest that they rely on messages in order to construct
their daily routines. Messages provide and reinforce common beliefs that
are unique to individual cultures.
Content is described as having monolithic "meaning" embedded with
"dominant" messages (Newcomb & Hirsch, 1983, p. 40). It assumes that the
audience shares, or perceives, the same meaning from messages. James
Carey, a supporter of the paradigm, approaches the concept in two
parts. He emphasizes the transmission aspect of communication as a
"process of transmitting messages at a distance for the purpose of
control. The archetypal case of communication then is persuasion, attitude
change, behavior modification, socialization through the transmission of
information, influence, or conditioning" (Carey, 1975, p. 177).
The other aspect focuses on the ritual of communication that "maintains
society in the representation of shared beliefs. Common messages, symbols,
and ideas are maintained continually and reinforced through conscious or
unconscious efforts" (Carey, 1975, p. 177). Similarly, Tönnies (1957)
considers social entities "conditioned by the wills of others directly
involved" (p. 7).
Carey eloquently summarizes the paradigm: "Communication is a symbolic
process whereby reality is produced, maintained, repaired, and transformed"
(Carey, 1975, p. 177). Relevant to this study, it suggests that women's
presence in advertising helps maintain them in mainstream
society. Conversely, their absence helps to keep them invisible.
Symbolic interaction
Symbolic interaction, part of the social behaviorism view of sociology, is
concerned with how culture influences people's learning and considers where
learning takes place. The notion is that symbolic behavior occurs in
shared meaning and values between social actors. George Herbert Mead
(1934) asserts that mutual conditioning occurs in our environment. He uses
an analogy of players at a baseball game where each player learns his
respective position through playing, observing, and interacting with other
team members. In society, people are conditioned by others for their role
within the group.
Contemporary critics suggest that people's interpretation of the
environment is based on communications, including advertising. What people
know of the world is based on their prior experience, including indirect
experiences from communications. These communications guide people in
their everyday lives in their concept of self, their roles, situations, and
expectations. Portrayals of men and women in mass media help create and
maintain images of each gender.
Social construction of reality
Social construction of reality proposes that communication provides
symbols and common experiences that people share to form meanings in the
world. The paradigm is based on differing of knowledge in specific social
contexts. Through the dynamic, ever evolving process of society, knowledge
comes to be established as reality. "Whatever passes for 'knowledge' in
society, regardless of the ultimate validity, … is developed, transmitted,
and maintained in social situations" (Berger & Luckmann, 1967, p. 3).
Reality is also that which we take for granted in our everyday lives. It
allows people to exist in society through "an ongoing reality between my
meaning and their meaning in this world…. We share a common sense about its
reality" (Berger & Luckmann, 1967, p. 23). The authors argue that one
"cannot exist in everyday reality without continually interacting and
communicating with others" (p. 23). Mass communications help create mutual
symbols that have shared meaning. Advertisers design messages that
include, or do not include, women to best communicate with their target
audience.
Roles are created in common knowledge, based on the "fundamental process
of habitualization and objectivation" (Berger & Luckmann, 1967, p.
74). Roles are necessary to maintain order, including institutional order
(Berger & Luckmann, 1967). Portrayals of women in advertisements are based
on common social reality. The lack of women present in ads contributes to
the masculine dominance of most societies.
Feminist theory
Feminist sociologist DeVault defines feminism as "a movement, set of
beliefs, that problematize gender inequality… and work to improve women's
status" (Eaton, 2001, p. 17; DeVault, 1996, p. 31). Most scholars suggest
three typologies of feminist thought, although distinctions are
blurred. Radical feminists seek major social changes, and that equality
with men in a male-defined world is not enough (Dyer, 1993). Focusing on
pornography, they argue that women are objectified for men's pleasures,
perpetuating the "patriarchal ideology of women as available objectives"
(van Zoonen, 1994, p. 19). Socialist feminists "claim that gender is a
crucial component of ideology " (van Zoonen, 1994, p. 21) and are
interested in the interaction between gender, class, and ideology. Liberal
feminism is concerned with stereotypes and gender socialization. The
latter two are most relevant to this study.
Social feminists link "the capital mode of production to the oppression of
women" (van Zoonen, 1994, p. 21). From Marxism, they use the political
economic analysis of capitalism and the "conception of human nature as
constituted in society" (van Zoonen, 1994, p. 22). Media, including ad
messages, are viewed as hegemonic agents that help maintain a capitalist
and patriarchal order.
The lack of representation of women in the media, such as on television,
tells the audience that "women don't matter much in American society"
(Tuchman, 1978, p. 11). Discrimination, prejudice, and annihilation of
women create a void, resulting in absence of women images. Cultural
conditioning has created a "role crisis" for women (Friedan, 1983, p.
75). Lack of women images in advertisements maintain women in their
traditional place and out of the mainstream.
The liberal feminist agenda acknowledges societal barriers that prevent
women from succeeding and work to improve conditions within the existing
system. They argue that women need to be treated equally and allowed into
the mainstream to reach their full human potential (Friedan, 1983). The
focus is on individual autonomy and equal opportunity for women to exercise
free will and share in social decisions (Dyer, 1993). Liberal feminists
believe that providing role models for adult women and girls is an
important issue (Eaton, 2001).
Economics and education are two key issues that can empower women. The
opportunity for employment is not only a way to gain economic independence,
but it provides training, skills, and an identity (Friedan, 1983). Earning
a living can be an emotional benefit while providing for material
necessities. Education is also crucial for intellectual and spiritual
growth. It provides for a wider range of job opportunities to greater
ability to be active in society.
Advertising
A considerable amount of literature suggests advertising is an important
indicator of socialization. Sociologists and other theorists use messages
embedded in advertising to understand the values and motives of individuals
(Busby & Leichty, 1993). Several studies consider that "cultural values
are the core value of advertising messages" (Cho, et al., 1999, p.
59). Others have called it "the most potent influence in adapting and
changing habits and modes of life, affecting what we eat, what we wear and
the work and play of the whole nation" (Fox, 1984, p. 87; Lazier &
Kendrick, 1993, pp. 199-200).
As a social barometer, advertising can be explicated into two: social
actor and cultural artifact (Cheng, 1997; Dyer; 1982; Frith, 1995; Leiss,
1990). The former considers that advertising is powerful in transforming
symbols, images, and ideas between products and individuals. Similarly,
psychologists argue that advertising is a source of learning or
conditioning (Lazier & Kendrick, 1993, p. 200). As a cultural artifact, ad
messages are thought to reflect a shared understanding in society.
Hypotheses
Four hypotheses comprise the study. In each case, the independent variable
is a different dimension of a country's social system, while in all cases,
the dependent variable is the average number of women per
advertisement. Table 1 provides data for all independent variables.
[INSERT TABLE 1 HERE]
Gross national product
Advertising helps create demand for new products and purchase frequency
for existing ones. Theories support the notion that advertising messages
are defined according to parameters of the social system. Women's role in
society can be found in their portrayals or, more generally, their mere
presence in advertisements. A study of 353 television commercials found
that men still dominate prominent roles (Lazier & Kendrick, 1993, p.
202). Advertising as a condition must exist before women can be present in
ads and the more commercially oriented the country; the more ads and the
more women are seen.
The first hypothesis tests this relationship: The larger the country's
gross domestic product, the more women are shown in that country's magazine
advertisements. Gross domestic product (GDP) of each country is the
independent variable, measured in billions of U.S. dollars as found in The
Economist. The dependent variable, used for all hypotheses, is the average
number of women present per advertisement for each country.
Theoretically, it suggests that the presence of women in advertising is
linked to the commercial orientation of a country. Because advertising may
act like a distorted mirror in reflecting society, the bigger the economy,
the more advertising, and the more opportunity for appearances of women per ad.
Civil rights
In a study of television advertising in the United States and China, Cheng
(1997) found that television commercials portrayed men more often than
women and men dominate voice-overs in more than 82% of cases for both
countries, but more so for China (pp. 309-310). This suggests that the
more freedoms and rights a country offers; the more women are represented
in advertisements. Civil rights, defined in terms of guaranteed freedom
for individuals, are a social system dimension that effect women. Liberal
feminist theory argues "women are rationally and politically the same…,
entitled to share equally in all rights and privileges" (Dyer, 1993, p. 323).
It is expected that the more freedom provided by the social system, the
more rights women will have, and the more they are able to participate in
society. Entering the mainstream makes women's images more common. The
second hypothesis captures the expected relationship: The more civil
rights offered by a country, the more women are shown in that country's
magazine advertisements. As the independent variable, civil rights is
defined as constitutional public law that guarantees "legal protection of
all individuals to live freely, be housed, work, have income support in
cases of need, be educated, and to have access to legal advice and medical
care" (Kurian, 1991, p. 51). A civil rights score, ranging from 1 for the
most rights to 7 for the least rights, is complied for each country.
The hypothesis implies that the more freedom every individual has in a
country, the more women will enjoy those freedoms. The condition allows
people, including women, the opportunity to participate in
society. Women's increase in social activities make it more likely that
they will be depicted in media, specifically in ads.
Literacy
Liberal feminists argue that education is one vehicle that can empower
women to become full participants in society by increasing their
opportunities. Countries with tightly controlled social systems
discriminate or discourage education for women and thereby keep women in
traditional roles. Countries that forbid the education of women have low
female literacy rates, such as 1% in South Yemen and 6% in Afghanistan
(Kurian, 1991, p. 244).
The third hypothesis is: The greater a country's percent of literate
women, the more women are shown in that country's magazine
advertisements. It predicts a positive relationship between literacy rates
of women, implying discrimination against education for women, and their
portrayal in advertisements. Percent of literate women is the independent
variable. Literacy is defined as the ability to read short and simple
passages and to answer questions about it. It assumes that literacy is
gained from education, and the more education, the more literate the
individual.
The theoretical linkage is based on the liberal feminist argument that
education is a primary path for women to gain independence. The knowledge
and skills acquired through education help women into the mainstream. As
women participate in society, their image will become a common occurrence.
Employment
Liberal feminist theory argues that employment is a key method for women to
gain independence. The proportion of women in the labor force is a key
indicator of culture. If women become employed, they have more autonomy
and ability to participate in society. The more active they are, the more
they will be represented in advertising. The fourth hypothesis reflects
this relationship: The greater a country's percent of women in the labor
force, the more women are shown in that country's magazine
advertisements. The independent variable is the percentage of women in the
labor force, or those working outside the home and making an income.
Theoretically, employment not only provides an economic base but also
training and skills that can help women become independent. Countries that
allow women to be employed also allow them to be in the mainstream. The
more women participate in society, the more likely they will appear in
advertisements.
METHOD
A quantitative content analysis is the method used to understand the
effects of countries' social systems on women's appearances in
advertising. The level of analysis is social system, and the unit of
analysis is the country. The sampling unit is printed publication, and ads
are the recording and contextual units.
Country selection
The research investigates broad aspects of social system influence on the
absence or presence of women in ads. Countries are selected on a purposive
basis to gain the widest variation of social system dimensions of gross
domestic product, civil rights, literacy of women, and women in the labor
force. To achieve this, countries sampled represent capitalistic,
socialistic, Middle East, developing, and those recently free from
communist controls. A total of 24 countries are reviewed, comprising about
10% of all world nations recognized by the United Nations.
Publication selection
The design uses a convenience sample of publications. Besides a few
common European magazines from Germany and France, foreign publications are
not easily obtainable. Those found at libraries are primarily edited for
distribution outside the country of origin. These vehicles are assumed to
be different from those that are used within the country, in both content
and advertising. The premise is that advertisers strategically design ads
(therefore the absence or presence of women) and place ads in specific
publications for potential customers. Media budgets alone represent 80% to
90% of total advertising expenditures, emphasizing the importance of
placement. Foreign editions are not for the local audience and are
therefore excluded.
The availability limitations required that publications be requested from
foreign embassies from as far away as London. Multiple e-mail and phone
calls were necessary to secure any kind of printed material. Securing
appropriate material was a challenge given the definition and parameters
established.
Publication definition
The concept of magazines is chosen for the medium's ability to provide an
embellished picture of a country's social system. Magazines are typically
color and include more imagery, important for advertisers. In addition,
magazines demand a longer lead-time for production and printing, as
compared to newspapers. Advertisers are required to strategically develop
ad messages well in advance. It assumes that the design, including the
option of including women, is rational and objective.
The preferred vehicles are monthly color magazines. However,
black-and-white and daily publications are also used, if necessary, to
increase the number of countries. The intention is to review general mass
interest magazines, similar to Time, Newsweek, or People. The definition
of print publication is broadly defined to allow flexibility of obtaining
appropriate vehicles throughout different cultures, with these parameters:
• Vehicles from the category defined as consumer publications.
• Editorial content comprised of mixed topics including general interest,
political, or popular culture.
• Mainstream printed material that is read by people within the country.
• Read by both men and women (women's magazines are excluded).
• Written in the country's common or native language, or English if
appropriate.
• Format could be magazine, tabloid, or broadsheet size. The terms
newspaper, magazine, or tabloid are avoided in order to secure the best
print vehicle.
• No color restrictions, could be black-and-white or four-color.
• Must include advertisements.
Publication sampling
The project demands that vehicles be examined in their entirety. When
possible, more than one publication from each country is reviewed to ensure
validity. However, due to limitations and time restrictions, this is not
always the case.
A combination of publications from country embassies, newsstands, and the
library are used. Sampling design considers the complexities and
limitations in two major categories:
• All appropriate publications obtained, based on the definition and
parameters above are included in the study.
• Publications from the library, when offered, provide a rich source of
multiple editions. The sampling design considers frequency of issue:
• Monthly: Select 6 random issues from the 12 most current.
• Weekly: Select 6 random samples from within the last year.
• Daily: Construct a 7-day week random sample from within the last year.
Information about the sampling plan is available from the author.
Intercoder reliability
The author is the coder for the entire sample. To assess intercoder
reliability, a second coder reviewed 19% of the titles, 8% of the sample,
purposively selected for a wide variation of countries. The second coder,
a master's student in communications, was trained specifically for the
project. She performed the coding, using the same material (date, title)
as the original coder and completed a separate coding sheet.
Scores of the six most relevant variables are compared from both
coders. Correlation coefficients are calculated as the test of intercoder
agreement. There was complete agreement between coders on all variables
coded (r = 1.00).
RESULTS
A total of 163 publications from 24 countries are reviewed for the
presence of women in advertisements and the relationship with social system
dimensions. The study encompasses 4,494 ads from 10,863
pages. Publications, from 48 different titles, range in size, with a
fairly equal split of magazine, and a combination of tabloid and broadsheet
sizes. Color reflects a similar ratio, four-color 53%, and black-and-white
only or with some color, 47%. Women appear in only 24% of all ads (Table 2).
[INSERT TABLE 2 HERE]
For all countries, as shown in Table 3, the average publication is 81
pages long and includes 29 ads. Italian magazines yield the most ads per
publication with an average of 70, while China has the least, 6. The
average number of women present in ads is about 10 per publication. Italy
boasts the most, 38 women per publication, while there were no women in the
Libyan materials. The average number of women per ad is .32, Australia
ranked the highest, .80, and Libya the lowest with none (data not shown in
table form).
[INSERT TABLE 3 HERE]
Table 4 presents summary statistics for country social system
dimensions. The mean GDP is $890 billion (U.S. dollars). Lebanon ranks
the lowest, $16 billion, while the highest is the United States, $7,903
billion. The mean civil rights score is 3.8. Four countries, Australia,
Japan, Sweden, and the United States, achieve 1, the best score. China has
the worst score for civil rights, 6.7, although the Czech Republic and
Libya are close, 6.4 and 6.3 respectively. The average proportion of
literate women is 82%. Four countries boast 100% female literacy
rate: Finland, Germany, Japan, and Sweden. Countries with the lowest
percent of female literacy are India, 25.7%, and Nigeria, 31.5%. The mean
of women in the labor force is 44%. Ex-soviet countries topped the list
with the most women in the labor force: Russia, 71%, Poland, 70%, and the
Czech Republic, 69%. Libya and Saudi Arabia each yield 5%, ranking last.
[INSERT TABLE 4 HERE]
Hypothesis 1, proposing an association of a country's GDP with the average
number of women in advertisements, is not supported. As seen in Table 5,
using Pearson correlation coefficients, r = .28.
[INSERT TABLE 5 HERE]
GDP could be an explanatory variable as it is related to the number of
women in ads through civil rights. GDP is statistically significant with
civil rights, r = -.46, p < .05. The negative relationship is expected
because an increase in GDP is accompanied by a lower civil rights score,
meaning more freedom. The civil rights score is also significantly
correlated with the number of women per ad, r = -.63, p < .01. The path is
suggested:
GDP _ Civil rights score _ Average # of women per ad
r = -.63
p < .01
r = -.46
p < .05
The relationship in hypothesis 2, the more civil rights offered by a
country, the more women appear in advertisements, is supported. It
achieves the strongest correlation in the study, r = -.63, p < .01. The
negative relationship is expected as every unit decrease in the civil
rights score represents more freedom, and more freedom is associated with
more women found in advertisements.
The percent literacy of women and the number of women per ad is also
significantly correlated, r = .50, p < .05, supporting hypothesis 3. It
suggests that an increase in the proportion of literate women is associated
with an increase in the number of women per advertisement.
The last hypothesis, the greater the percent of women in the labor force,
the more women appear in ads, is not supported. This is the weakest
relationship in the study, resulting in r = .09. However, the data suggest
that the percent of women in the labor force is an explanatory variable for
women's appearance in ads through the percent of literate women. Women in
the labor force is significantly correlated with the percent of literate
women, r = .41, p < .05. And, as just explained, literacy rate is
significant with the average number of women per ad, r = .50, p < .05. The
proposed relationship:
% women in labor force _ % literate women _ Average # of women per ad
r = .50
p < .05
r = .41
p < .05
To further examine the data, a hierarchical regression analysis is
constructed on the number of women in ads with the four independent
variables, GDP, civil rights score, the percent of literate women, and
women in the labor force. Variables are added to the model on a
theoretical basis, in order of least to most important.
The first variable, the percent of women in the labor force is considered
to have the weakest relationship with the number of women per ad. This
considers that high proportion of women in the labor force may result from
other variables that are detrimental to women's freedoms and participation
in society. These factors can prohibit women's appearances in ads rather
than support them, clouding the hypothesized relationship.
Percent of literate women is entered as the second variable in the
model. The feminists, particularly the liberal feminists, argue that
education is an important vehicle for women to gain access to
society. Although it is proposed to have a stronger relationship than the
percentage of women in the labor force, the variables have similar
problems. Education of women may be a consequence of alternative factors
in a restrictive social system that result in marginalizing women and yield
a low incidence of images in ads.
Civil rights are considered the next important variable. Freedoms allow
for other social system dimensions, including employment, education,
speech, and commercial endeavors. Its connection to other factors should
result in a strong relationship with the appearance of women in ads.
GDP is proposed as the most important variable as economic conditions
affect nations in all dimensions. Wealth is a precursor for technology,
education, communication, and social mobility. Advertising is a commercial
activity, linked to economics, suggesting that GDP is closely associated
with the number of women per ads.
Table 6 presents results of the hierarchical regression. The total model
achieves R2 = .53, p < .01, as the combination of variables explain 53% of
the number of women in advertisements. Percent of women in the labor force
achieves a -.11 standardized beta in the total model. The other three
variables pull the association negative, from the direct relationship of r
= .09. This likely reflects the influence of the eastern block countries,
comprising a high number of women in the labor force but a relatively low
average number of women per ad. The percent of literate women achieves .42
standardized beta, contributing .26 to R2, for R2 = .27, p < .05. Civil
rights deliver -.55 standardized beta coefficient, p < .01, the strongest
relationship with the number of women per ad. The variable contributes .26
to R2, resulting in R2 = .53, p < .01. GDP results in a small standardized
beta coefficient, -.04. It shows that other variables have stronger
relationships with the number of women in ads.
[INSERT TABLE 6 HERE]
DISSCUSSION
How can you explain that across almost 11,000 pages of printed
publications from around the world women are included in less than 25% of
all ads? Women's absence is seen in the data, their under representation
in mass media documented. What is surprising is the lack of studies or
empirical evidence suggesting an explanation. What social system dimension
is responsible for determining the appearance of women in ads? Unlike
others, this research links social system dimensions to the presence of
women in advertising.
Several studies conclude that women are under represented or depicted in
stereotypical roles. Cheng (1997) asserts that "stereotyping in gender
role portrayals is a cross-country and cross-cultural problem in
advertising, so it deserves serious attention from advertising
professionals and researchers" (1997, p. 314). A 1988 study of the social
status of women in magazine ads found that images did not reflect women's
strides in the last 20 years (Lazier-Smith, 1988; Lazier & Kendrick,
1993). From this, Busby & Leichty (1993) conclude "advertising was not
'market driven.' Indeed advertising seems to be driven by factors greater
than market demands – cultural myths, and attitudinal inertia" (p. 261).
Social feminist scholar Eaton (2001) argues that advertising is linked
with economics and politics, and acts as a hegemonic agent that maintains
patriarchy. Advertising is a profit-driven, rich, and powerful business
armed with sophisticated market research techniques dedicated to creating
seductive messages. The process is a strategic, conscious effort; images
are planned and women are left out for rational, objective considerations.
Using Marxist philosophy, the "dominant ideology becomes invisible because
it is translated into 'common sense" (van Zoonen, 1994, p. 24). This
suggests that in everyday life, people are not likely aware of women's
absence in ads. More moderate theories also support this notion. The
social construction of reality paradigm proposes that we become so accustom
to what we see, we accept reality, without question (Bergman & Luckmann,
1967). The transmissional model theorizes that messages help control and
maintain society "through conscious or unconscious efforts" (Carey, 1975,
p. 177). The ritual model postulates that people rely on messages to
construct their daily routine, thereby maintaining social meaning. Women
remain unconsciously absent from the public's perspective.
The symbolic interaction theory (Mead, 1934) suggests that gender roles are
formed through mutual conditioning of shared beliefs and
behaviors. Implications for women are attitudes beyond simple mass media
messages and into other social dimensions, such as education and job
opportunities. As the findings show, images of women in ads are associated
with particular dimensions. Advertising is a communication that works for
the dominant ideology and is closely linked to social systems.
Results of this investigation need to be interpreted considering the
limitations. Although it comprises a well-rounded group of countries,
future research should incorporate more nations from Asia, the Middle East,
ex-Soviet, and South America and from Africa and Latin America. Changes
will increase validity and provide a base for examining country type.
Additional studies should be augmented with a qualitative analysis of
readership habits within each country to ascertain the best material to
review. A practical solution is in depth interviews with counsel generals
or cultural officials, who are natives, current with their citizens, and
located in the United States. A summary of international reading habits
could be of great value.
More issues of each publication need to be included to ensure validity and
reliability. For this study, many available publications at the library
were exhausted. Additional time will allow for securing multiple issues
from other libraries, embassies, or alternative sources.
The research takes a holistic approach to women in advertisements by
aggregating the number of ads and occurrences of women. It is meant as a
snapshot of what average citizens are likely to see everyday and its
implications for women. It is beyond the scope of the project to address
specific details, such as differences in gender role portrayals, rather it
offers significant findings by addressing the broad picture: ads and
images of women, and their associations with social system dimensions.
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Table 1. List of countries with gross domestic product, civil rights
score, percent literacy, and percent in the labor force.
Gross Domestic Civil Rights Percent Literacy Percent Women
Country Product $bn* Mean Score** of Women*** in Labor Force****
_________________________________________________________________________________
Argentina 290 4.1 94.4 31
Australia 387 1.0 99.0 44
Chile 74 4.6 93.0 26
China 924 6.7 61.2 55
Czech Republic 53 6.4A 99.5D 69F
Finland 125 2.0 100.0 60
France 1,465 1.7 98.7 48
Germany 2,180 4.0B 100.0E 61.5G
Greece 123 3.0 90.6 40
Hungary 46 5.7 98.6 61
India 427 3.3 25.7 41
Italy 1,157 1.7 96.3 32
Japan 4,089 1.0 100.0 59
Korea (South) 426 5.6 87.9 40
Lebanon 16 3.1 64.2 18
Libya 39 6.3 62.0 5
Nigeria 35 4.0 31.5 53
Poland 151 5.7 99.0 70
Russia 332 6.0C 99.0 71H
Saudi Arabia 143 6.0 34.6 5
Spain 555 4.3 89.9 23
Sweden 227 1.0 100.0 52
Turkey 201 3.3 50.0 51
United States 7,903 1.0 95.3 51
________________
*GDP in billions of U.S. dollars, calculated by multiplying gross domestic
product per capita and total population. Source: The Economist, 2001, p. 22.
**Civil rights score compiled by indexing individual, constitutional,
civil, and social rights such as housing, employment, education, and
medical care. Scores range from 1 = best, to 7 = worst. Source: Civil
rights index (Kurian, 1991, p. 51). ACzech Republic data uses
Czechoslovakia figures; BGermany data averaged from East Germany, 6.9, and
West Germany, 1.1 mean scores; CRussia data uses Soviet Union figures.
***Coded using percent female literacy for each country, ranging from 25%
to 100%, except Australia, Poland, and Russia that uses total adult
literacy each yielding over 99%. Sources: All countries from Kurian, 1991,
p. 244 except Australia from The Economist, 2001, p. 102; Poland and Russia
from Turner, 2002, pp. 1302, 1340). DCzech Republic data uses
Czechoslovakia figures; EGermany data calculated by averaging East Germany
and West Germany, both with 100% female literacy rate.
****Source: Women in the labor force (Kurian, 1991, p. 178). FCzech
Republic data uses Czechoslovakia; GGermany data averaged from East
Germany, 72%, and West Germany, 51% women in the labor force. Figures;
HRussia data uses Soviet Union figures.
Table 2. Percentages for publication characteristics including size and
color, and
advertisement characteristics of the presence or absence of women.
Variables %
_____________________________________________________________________
Size of publication
Magazine size* 53.99
Tabloid size** 13.50
Newspaper size*** 32.51
100.00%
(N = 163)
Color
4-color 52.76
Black and white only or with some color 47.24
100.00%
(N = 163)
Advertisements
With women 23.74
Without women 76.26
100.00%
(N = 4,494)
_________
*Magazine size is considered 7" x 10" to 10" x 12".
**Tabloid size is considered 10.25" x 12.25" to 14" x 16".
***Newspaper size is publications larger than 14" x 16".
Table 3. Means and standard deviations for characteristics of publications
including average number of pages, number of ads, and number of women in
ads, and number of women per ad.
Variables Mean Std. Deviation N
_____________________________________________________________________
Average number of
pages per publication 80.65 47.14 24
Average number of
ads per publication 29.42 17.43 24
Average number of women
in ads per publication 10.42 10.65 24
Average number of
women per ad .32 .20 24
Table 4. Means and standard deviations of social system variables: GDP,
civil rights score, percent of literacy of women, percent of women in the
labor force.
Variables Mean Std. Deviation N
___________________________________________________________________________
GDP* $890.33 $1,750.02 24
Civil rights score** 3.81 1.95 24
Percent of women
who are literate*** 82.13 24.68 24
Percent of women in
the labor force**** 44.44 19.02 24
__________
*Coded in billions of U.S. dollars, for each country, calculated by
multiplying gross domestic product per capita and total population (The
Economist, 2001, p. 22).
**Coded using civil rights index scores for each country, ranging from 1 =
most rights to
7 = least rights (Kurian, 1991, p. 51).
**Coded using percent female literacy for each country, ranging from 25% to
100% (All countries from Kurian, 1991, p. 244 except Australia from The
Economist, 2001, p. 102; Poland and Russia from Turner, 2002, pp. 1302, 1340).
****Coded using percent of women in the labor force, ranging from 5% to 71%
(Kurian, 1991,
p. 178).
Table 5. Pearson correlation coefficients for social system dimensions of
GDP, civil rights score, percent of literacy of women, percent of women in
the labor force, and average number of women per advertisement variables.
Variables 2. 3. 4. 5.
___________________________________________________________________________
1. GDP* -.46a .23 .18 .28
(24) (24) (24) (24)
2. Civil rights score** — -.25 -.06 -.63b
(24) (24) (24)
3. Percent literacy of women*** — .41a .50a
(24) (24)
4. Percent of women in the
labor force**** — .09
(24)
5. Average number of women
per advertisement***** —
__________
*Coded in billions of U.S. dollars, for each country, calculated by
multiplying gross domestic product per capita and total population (The
Economist, 2001, p. 22).
**Coded using the civil rights index scores for each country, ranging from
1 = most rights to
7 = least rights (Kurian, 1991, p. 51).
**Coded using percent female literacy for each country, ranging from 25% to
100% (All countries from Kurian, 1991, p. 244 except Australia from The
Economist, 2001, p. 102; Poland and Russia from Turner, 2002, pp. 1302, 1340).
****Coded using percent of women in the labor force, ranging from 5% to 71%
(Kurian, 1991,
p. 178).
*****Coded using average number of women per advertisement per country.
___________
ap< .05
bp< .01
cp< .001
Table 6. Hierarchical regression analysis for social system dimensions of
women in the
labor force, literacy of women, civil rights, and GDP, on average number of
women per advertisement.
Blocks of independent Std. R-square Total Adjusted
variables beta change R-square R-square
________________________________________________________________________
1. Percent of women
in the labor force* -.11 .01 .01 -.04
2. Percent literacy
of women** .42a .26a .27a .20a
3. Civil rights score*** -.55b .26b .53b .46b
4. GDP**** -.04 .01 .53b .43
__________
*Coded using percent of women in the labor force, ranging from 5% to 71%
(Kurian, 1991, p. 178).
**Coded using percent female literacy for each country, ranging from 25% to
100% (All countries from Kurian, 1991, p. 244 except Australia from The
Economist, 2001, p. 102; Poland and Russia from Turner, 2002, pp. 1302, 1340).
***Coded using civil rights index scores for each country, ranging from 1 =
most rights to 7 = least rights (Kurian, 1991, p. 51).
****Coded in billions of U.S. dollars, for each country, calculated by
multiplying gross domestic product per capita and total population (The
Economist, 2001, p. 22).
___________
ap< .05
bp< .01
cp< .001
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